:: wikimiki.org ::

India

India

The Republic of India is a country in South Asia which comprises of the majority of the Indian subcontinent. India has a coastline which stretches over seven thousand kilometres, and shares its borders with Pakistan to the west, the People's Republic of China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the northeast, and Bangladesh and Myanmar on the east. On the Indian Ocean, it is adjacent to the island nations of the Maldives on the southwest, Sri Lanka on the south, and Indonesia on the southeast. India also claims a border with Afghanistan to the northwest. India is the fourth largest economy in the world in terms of purchasing power parity. It is the second most populous country in the world, with a population of over one billion, and is the seventh largest country by geographical area. It is home to some of the most ancient civilizations, and a centre of important historic trade routes. Four major world religions: Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism have originated from India. Formerly a major part of the British Empire as the British Raj before gaining independence in 1947, during the past twenty years the country has grown significantly, especially in its economic and military spheres, regionally as well as globally. The name India , is derived from the Old Persian version of Sindhu, the historic local appellation for the river Indus; see Origin of India's name. The Constitution of India and general usage also recognises Bharat ( ), which is derived from the Sanskrit name of an ancient Hindu king, whose story is to be found in the Mahabharata, as an official name of equal status. A third name, Hindustan ( ) , or Land of the Hindus in Persian, has been used since the twelfth century, though its contemporary use is unevenly applied due to domestic disputes over its representiveness as a national signifier.

History

Stone Age rock shelters with paintings at Bhimbetka in Madhya Pradesh are the earliest known traces of human life in India. The first known permanent settlements appeared 9,000 years ago and developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation, which peaked between 2600 BC and 1900 BC. It was followed by the Vedic Civilisation. From around 550 BC onwards, many independent kingdoms came into being. In the north, the Maurya dynasty, which included Ashoka, contributed greatly to India's cultural landscape. From 180 BC, a series of invasions from Central Asia followed, with the successive establishment in the northern Indian Subcontinent of the Indo-Greek, Indo-Scythian and Indo-Parthian kingdoms, and finally the Kushan Empire. From the 3rd century AD onwards the Gupta dynasty oversaw the period referred to as ancient India's "Golden Age". Gupta dynasty built by emperor Ashoka in the 3rd century BC]] In the south, several dynasties including the Chalukyas, Cheras, Cholas, Kadambas, Pallavas and Pandyas prevailed during different periods. Science, art, literature, mathematics, astronomy, engineering, religion and philosophy flourished under the patronage of these kings. Following the Islamic invasions in the beginning of the second millennium, much of north and central India came to be ruled by the Delhi Sultanate, and later, much of the entire subcontinent by the Mughal dynasty. Nevertheless, several indigenous kingdoms remained or rose to power, especially in the relatively sheltered south. Vijayanagara Empire was notable among such kingdoms. During the middle of the second millennium, several European countries, including the Portuguese, Dutch, French and British, who were initially interested in trade with India, took advantage of fractured kingdoms fighting each other to establish colonies in the country. After a failed insurrection in 1857 against the British East India Company, popularly known in India as the First War of Indian Independence and most commonly known in the West as the Indian Mutiny, most of India came under the direct administrative control of the crown of the British Empire. British Empire, Orissa built in the 13th century, is one of the most famous monuments of stone sculpture in the world.]] sculpture in the 10th century AD.]] In the early part of the 20th century, a prolonged and largely non-violent struggle for independence, the Indian independence movement, followed, to be eventually led by Mahatma Gandhi, regarded officially as the Father Of The Nation. The culmination of this path-breaking struggle was reached on 1947-08-15 when India gained full independence from British rule, later becoming a republic on 1950-01-26. As a multi-ethnic and multi-religious country, India has had its share of sectarian violence and insurgencies in different parts of the country. Nonetheless, it has held itself together as a secular, liberal democracy barring a brief period from 1975 to 1977 during which the then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared a "state of emergency" with the suspension of civil rights. India has unresolved border disputes with China, which escalated into a brief war in 1962, and Pakistan which resulted in wars in 1947, 1965, and 1971, and a border altercation in the northern state of Kashmir in 1999. India was a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. In 1974, India conducted an underground nuclear test, making it an unofficial member of the "nuclear club", which was followed up with a series of five more tests in 1998. Significant economic reforms beginning in 1991 have transformed India into one of the fastest growing economies in the world and added to its global clout.

Government

The Constitution of India states India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic. India is a federal republic, with a bicameral parliament operating under a Westminster-style parliamentary system. It has a three branch system of governance consisting of the legislature, executive and judiciary. The President, who is the head of state, has a largely ceremonial role. His roles include interpreting the constitution, signing laws into action, and issuing pardons. He is also the Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces. The President and Vice-President are elected indirectly by an electoral college for five-year terms. The Prime Minister is the head of government and most executive powers are vested in this office. He (or she) is elected by legislators of the political party, or coalition, commanding a parliamentary majority, and serves a five-year term incumbent upon enjoying this majority. The constitution does not provide for a post of Deputy Prime Minister, but this option has been exercised from time to time. The legislature of India is the bicameral Parliament which consists of the upper house known as the Rajya Sabha, or Council of States, the lower house known as the Lok Sabha, or House of the People, and the President. The 245-member Rajya Sabha is chosen indirectly through an electoral college and has a staggered six year term. The 545-member Lok Sabha is directly elected for a five year term, and is the determinative constituent of political power and government formation. All Indian citizens above the age of eighteen are eligible to vote. The executive arm consists of the President, Vice-President and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet) headed by the Prime Minister. Any minister holding a portfolio must be a member of either house of parliament. In India's parliamentary system, the executive is subordinate to the legislature. India's independent judiciary consists of the Supreme Court, headed by the Chief Justice of India. The Supreme Court has both original jurisdiction over disputes between states and the Centre, and appellate jurisdiction over the High Courts of India. There are eighteen appellate High Courts, having jurisdiction over a large state or a group of states. Each of these states has a tiered system of lower courts. A conflict between the legislature and the judiciary is referred to the President.

Politics

Chief Justice of India For most of its independent history, India's national government has been controlled by the Indian National Congress Party. Following its position as the largest political organisation in pre-independence India, Congress, usually led by a member of the Nehru-Gandhi family, dominated national politics for over forty years. In 1977, a united opposition, under the banner of the Janata Party, won the election and formed a non-Congress government for a short period after the unpopular 'emergency rule' imposed by Indira Gandhi in the previous Congress regime. In 1996, the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), a political party with a right wing nationalist ideology, became the largest single party, and established for the first time a serious opposition to the largely centre-left Congress. But power was held by two successive coalition governments, who stayed on with the support of the Congress. In 1998, the BJP formed the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) along with smaller parties and became the first non-Congress government to sustain the full five year term after it returned to power in 1999. The decade prior to 1999 was marked by short-lasting governments, with seven separate governments formed within that period. One however, a Congress government formed in 1991, lasted the full five years and initiated significant economic reforms. In the 2004 Indian elections the Congress party returned to power after winning the largest number of seats, by a narrow margin. Congress formed a government in alliance with the Communist Party of India (Marxist) and with several mostly-regional parties called the United Progressive Alliance. The NDA, led by the BJP, currently forms the main opposition. All governments formed since 1996 have required party coalitions, with no single majority party, due to the steady rise of regional parties at the national level.

States and union territories

India is divided into twenty-eight states (which are further subdivided into districts), six Union Territories and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. States have their own elected government, whereas Union Territories are governed by an administrator appointed by the union government, though some have elected governments. India has had two scientific bases in Antarctica – the Dakshin Gangotri and Maitri, but has made no territorial claims so far.

Geography

Maitri in the north to Arunachal Pradesh in the far east making up most of India's eastern borders]] India's entire north and northeast states are made up of the Himalayan Range. The rest of northern, central and eastern India consists of the fertile Indo-Gangetic plain. Towards western India, bordering southeast Pakistan, lies the Thar Desert. The southern Indian peninsula is almost entirely composed of the Deccan plateau. The plateau is flanked by two hilly coastal ranges, the Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats. India is home to several major rivers such as the Ganga (Ganges), the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari, and the Krishna. The rivers are responsible for the fertile plains in northern India which are conducive to farming. The Indian climate varies from a tropical climate in the south to a more temperate climate in the north. Parts of India which lie in the Himalaya have a tundra climate. India gets most of its rains through the monsoons.

Economy

monsoon India has an economy ranked as the tenth largest in the world in terms of currency conversion and fourth largest in terms of purchasing power parity. It recorded one of the fastest annual growth rates of 6.9% for the year ending March 2005. India's per-capita income by purchasing power parity is US$ 3,262, ranked 125th by the World Bank. India's foreign exchange reserves amount to over US$ 143 billion. Mumbai serves as the nation's financial capital and is also home to both the headquarters of the Reserve Bank of India and the pre-eminent Bombay Stock Exchange. While a quarter of Indians still live below the poverty line, a large middle class has now emerged along with the rapid growth of the IT industry. The Indian economy has shed much of its historical dependence on agriculture, which now contributes to less than 25 % of GDP. Other important industries are mining, petroleum, diamond polishing, films, textiles, information technology services, and handicrafts. Most of India's industrial regions are centred around major cities. In recent years, India has emerged as one of the largest players in software and business process outsourcing services, with revenues of US$ 17.2 billion in 2004 to 2005. Many small-scale industries provide steady employment to workers in small towns and villages. business process outsourcing While India receives only around three million foreign visitors a year, tourism is still an important but under-developed source of national income. Tourism contributes 5.3 % of India's GDP. The actual employment generation, both direct and indirect, is estimated to be 42 million, or about 10 % of India's work force. In monetary terms, it contributes about US$4 billion in foreign exchange. India's major trading partners are the United States, Japan, China and the United Arab Emirates. India's main exports items include agricultural products, textile goods, gems and jewellry, software services and technology, engineering goods, chemicals and leather products while its main import commodities are crude oil, machinery, gems, fertiliser, chemicals. For the year 2004, India's total exports stood at US$ 69.18 billion while the imports were worth at US $89.33 billion.

Demographics

India is the second most populous country in the world, with only China having a larger population. By 2030, India is expected to surpass China with the world's largest population, estimated at 1.6 billion. Language, religion, and caste are major determinants of social and political organisation within the highly diverse Indian population today. Its biggest metropolitan agglomerations are Mumbai (formerly Bombay), Delhi, Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) and Chennai (formerly Madras). Chennai]] India's literacy rate is 64.8 % with 53.7 % of females and 75.3 % of males being literate. The sex ratio is 933 females for every 1000 males. Work Participation Rate (WPR) (the percentage of workers to total population) stands at 39.1 % with male WPR at 51.7 % and female WPR at 25.6 % inote|eu{inote|demostats{inote|religion{ref|languages{inote|tongues{see2|Christianity in India|Jews in India{seealso3|List of Indian languages by total speakers|List of cities in India|Religion in India{main|Culture of India{seealso4|List of World Heritage sites in India|Indian architecture|Indian family name|Cuisine of India{main|Sports in India{main|Holidays in India{Official Holidays of India{Topics related to India{portal{sisterlinks|India{wikitravel{wikicities|india|India{explain-inote{Web reference | title=India facts and figures | work=Embassy of India| URL= http://www.indianembassy.org/dydemo/indiaprofile/profile.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Forex reserves up by $1bn | work=Economic Times| URL= http://economictimes.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1093864.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India Economy | work=Travel Document Systems |URL= http://www.traveldocs.com/in/economy.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Services | work=India in Business| URL= http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/india-profile/ser-infotech.htm | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Destination India: An Unpolished Diamond | work=Times of India | URL= http://timesfoundation.indiatimes.com/articleshow/819309.cms | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= US, UAE, UK, China, Japan among India's top trade partners | work=Indian Express| URL= http://www.indianexpress.com/news/business/20050102-0.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= CIA Factbook : India | work=CIA Factbook | URL= http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Provisional Population Totals 2001 Census| work=Census of India| URL=http://www.censusindia.net/results/resultsmain.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Debating India & India's literacy rate | work=Debating India | URL= http://india.eu.org/1963.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= India – Country profiles | work=indexmundi.com | URL= http://www.indexmundi.com/India/ India | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Census of India 2001, Data on Religion | work=Census of India | URL= http://www.censusindia.net/results/religion_main.html | date=August 14 | year=2005{Web reference | title= Languages of India | work=India image | URL= http://indiaimage.nic.in/languages.htm| date=August 14 | year=2005{Book reference | Author=K.M. Matthew | Title=Manorama Yearbook 2003 | Publisher= Malaya Manorama | Year=2003 | ID=ISBN 8190046187{mnb|afgh|1{mnb|LoC|2{South Asia{Asia{Commonwealth of Nations{SAARC{Life in India{Link FA|sv{Link FA|sv

South Asia

:Southern Asia sometimes refers to all of Asia that was not part of the Soviet Union. Soviet Union Soviet Union as the international border between India and Pakistan, a position that neither party considers acceptable.)]] The term South Asia is considered often as synonymous with the term Indian subcontinent, and includes the following neighboring states:
- India, Pakistan and Bangladesh; constituting the bulk of the subcontinent proper
- the Himalayan States: Nepal and Bhutan
- the Indian Ocean Island States: Sri Lanka, the Maldives All of these countries are members of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC). The US State Department’s South Asia Bureau is currently planning to include Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Tajikistan and Uzbekistan in its definition of South Asia. These countries, however, are historically considered to belong to the category of Central Asia, along with Chinese Turkestan and Mongolia are not, strictly speaking, a part of South Asia. Geographically, the Indian subcontinent would additionally include some disputed territory currently controlled by China, and Myanmar and exclude most of western and northern Pakistan and Kashmir where the Indian plate and Eurasian plate meet and collide. Politically (as in the SAARC member-states), the region covers about 4,480,000 km² (1,729,738 sq. mi.), or 10% of the Asian continent. However, its population accounts for about 40% of Asia. Some or all of Afghanistan is sometimes considered part of the region of South Asia since, due to its geographic proximity, it has shared many historical currents with the region. Recently, Afghanistan has been admitted to the SAARC as a member.

Nomenclature

The term "South Asia"' is a common contemporary term for what in times before 1947, the end of the British Raj and the beginning of the First Indo-Pakistani War, was simply known as "India" and has subsequently been referred to as "British India," though prior to Independence that term referred to those portions of the country that were directly administered by the British, as opposed to the princely states. Historically, South Asia and South-East Asia together constitute what is known as the East Indies, with the first being defined as Hither India or India Citerior and Further India or India Ulterior. These terms, however, have ceased to be current and have become arcane and largely used, if at all, by academics, with only the "East Indies" still retaining some current usage.

Geography

India Ulterior Geographically, the region is bound by the Himalaya to the north and east, and the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal to the south. The Hindu Kush mountains that run through Afghanistan and northern Pakistan are usually considered the northwestern edge of the subcontinent. Geologically, most of this region is a subcontinent because it rests on a tectonic plate of its own, the India Plate, separate from the rest of Eurasia and was once a small continent before colliding with the Eurasian Plate and giving birth to the Himalayan range and the Tibetan plateau. Even now the India Plate continues to move northward with the result that the Himalaya are growing taller by a few centimetres each decade. In addition, is also home to an astounding variety of geographical features that are typical of much larger continents, such as glaciers, rainforests, valleys, deserts, and grasslands in an area about half the size of the United States. Further, the peoples of the region possess several distinguishing features that set them apart anthropologically from the rest of Asia; the dominant peoples and cultures are Indo-European and Dravidian, and have a greater affinity with Europe than with most other regions of Asia, excepting the Middle East and the Caucasus. South Asia ranks among the world's most densely-populated regions. About 1.6 billion people live there — about a quarter of all the people in the world. The region's population density of 305 persons per square kilometre is more than seven times the world average. The region has a long history. Ancient civilisations developed in the Indus River Valley. The region was at its most prosperous before the 18th century, when the Mughal Empire held sway in the north; European colonialism led to a new conquering of the region, by Portugal and Holland, and later Britain and to a lesser degree France. Most of the region gained independence from Europe in the late 1940s.

Other subregions of Asia

- East Asia
- Southeast Asia
- Central Asia
- Southwest Asia or West Asia (One definition of the Middle East is synonymous with Southwest Asia)
- North Asia (Siberia)
- Northern Eurasia (Extends into Europe)
- Central Eurasia (Extends into Europe)

External links

- [http://www.saarc-sec.org/ SAARC Secretariat]
- [http://www.slbc.lk Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation]
- [http://www.vernoncorea.info Vernon Corea South Asian Broadcaster] Category:Asia South Asia Category:South Asia. zh-min-nan:Lâm-a ko:남아시아 ms:Asia Selatan ja:南アジア th:เอเชียใต้

Kilometre

A kilometre (American spelling: kilometer), symbol: km is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1000 metres (from the Greek words χίλια (khilia) = thousand and μέτρο (metro) = count/measure). It is approximately equal to 0.621 miles, 1094 yards or 3281 feet. Slang terms for kilometre include "klick" (sometimes spelt "click" or "klik") and "kay" (or "k"). All these slang terms can also refer to kilometres per hour.

Metric system

:Main articles: Metric system and Metre Like the kilometre, all units of length in the metric system are based on the metre, by adding an SI prefix that stands for a power of ten, such as hecto for one hundred to form hectometre (= 0.1 kilometre) or mega for one million to form megametre (= 1,000 kilometre). The metre is not only the basis for all units of length in the metric system, but also of units of area (the square metre) and volume (the cubic metre). This extends to the kilometre, so one can have square and cubic kilometres. Unicode has symbols for "km" (㎞), for square kilometre (㎢) and for cubic kilometre (㎦); however, they are useful only in CJK texts, where they are equal in size to one Chinese character.

Pronunciation

In theory, the pronunciation of the word kilometre should have the stress placed on the first syllable, in line with other metric prefixes (as in kilogram, kilojoule and, analogous, kilobyte). However, pronunciation with the stress on the second syllable is usual in English.

Pakistan

:See 2005 Kashmir earthquake for the 8 October 2005 earthquake in Pakistan-administered Kashmir. The Islamic Republic of Pakistan (Urdu: اسلامی جمہوریۂ پاکستان, islāmī jamhūriya i pākistān), or Pakistan (Urdu: پاکستان, pākistān) is a country located in South Asia that overlaps onto the Greater Middle East and Central Asia. The country borders India, Afghanistan, Iran (Persia), China and the Arabian Sea. The name of the country "Pakistan" in Urdu and Persian means Land of the Pure. With around 163 million inhabitants, it is the sixth most populous country with the second largest Muslim population. It is a member of the UN, Commonwealth of Nations, South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation and the Organization of the Islamic Conference.

History

See main article for detailed information: History of Pakistan (Including pre-history, civilizations of the region, and modern events to date) Related articles: History of South Asia, History of Iran, History of India, History of Afghanistan History of Afghanistan, was center of Indus Valley Civilization, 2600 BCE – 1800 BCE]] Pakistan is the birthplace of some of the most ancient civilizations and a strategic center of historic trade routes, including the Silk Road. It exists in a region whose history has overlapped that of many empires (e.g Mughals) and also of countries including India, Afghanistan and Persia (Iran). As one of the cradles of human civilization, the Pakistani region has long been at the crossroads of history. Pakistan was the site of the Indus Valley civilization and was subsequently conquered by many groups, including Aryans, Persians, Greeks, Greco-Bactrians, Kushans, White Huns, and Scythians. This period saw the country advance in trade and culture to a level where the Gandhara region and the great city of Taxila (Takshashila) became a great center of learning and development.

Ancient History

Nearly all of ancient Pakistan was ruled by the Persian Achaemenid dynasty for over two hundred years beginning in 540 BCE. In 326 BCE, Alexander the Great defeated the Punjabi king Porus (Paurava) at the Hydaspes near Jhelum. After Alexander's death and brief Seleucid control, Chandragupta Maurya gained control of the territory. His grandson Ashoka is known as to have been one of the major proselytizers of Buddhism which spread in the region. After the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty was overthrown in 185 BCE, 185 BCE-171 BCE), founder of the Indo-Greek kingdom]] Demetrius of Bactria conquered Gandhara and Punjab in 184 BCE, establishing an Indo-Greek kingdom that lasted nearly two centuries, until around 10 BCE. To the south, this kingdom captured Sindh and extended to the coast of the Arabian Sea. One of the prominent Greco-Bactrian kings was Menander, who ruled from 155 to 130 BCE and is believed to have been a convert to Buddhism. His territories covered the eastern dominions of the divided Greek empire of Bactria (from the areas of the Panjshir and Kapisa, now in Afghanistan) and extended to the Pakistani province of Punjab with diffuse tributaries to the south and east, possibly even as far as Mathura in modern India. Sagala (modern Sialkot) became his capital and propered greatly under Menander's rule. The last Greek king to rule independently was probably Strato II, whose reign ended about 10 CE. Various Greek kings ruled into the beginning of the 1st century CE, as petty rulers (such as Theodamas) and as administrators, after the area was conquered by various Central Asian groups, most notably the Tocharian Kushans. The Kushan kingdom stretched from modern-day Uzbekistan to northwestern India. The kingdom was founded by King Heraios, and greatly expanded by his successor, Kujula Kadphises. Kadphises' son Vima Takto conquered territory now in India, but lost much of the western parts of the kingdom, including Gandhara, to the Parthian king Gondophares. Later invaders included the Scythians, and White Huns. While the Punjab remained under the Huns and Scythians, the Sassanian Persian Empire then came to control most of western Pakistan and parts of Sind came under the rule of Hindu rajas.

Arrival of Islam

In the eighth century CE, the arrival of the Arab Muslims to the provinces of Sindh and Punjab set the stage for the geographic boundaries of the modern state of Pakistan and formed the foundation for Islamic rule which quickly spread across much of South Asia. Following the rule of various Islamic empires, including the Ghaznavid Empire, the Ghorid kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate, the region was controlled by the Mughals from 1526 until 1739. From 1739 until the early 19th century the entire area was ruled briefly by Nadir Shah and then by the Afghans and then later the Baluchis and Sikhs came to control Sind and the Punjab.

British rule

To the east, the British had arrived and formed the British East India Company which would eventually spearhead a colonial dominion over South Asia. The Mughal Empire was then at a decline and the eventual collapse of the anti-British struggle by the Muslim leader Tipu Sultan from 1749 to 1799 left the remnants of the Mughal Empire vulnerable. The British did not gain strong footholds in the Pakistani region until the early 19th century and annexed the entire area during the Great Game rivalry with the Russian empire. The Indian War of Independence in 1857 was the last South Asian armed struggle against the British, while the Anglo-Afghan wars continued into the 20th century. After crushing the struggle the British dubbed the event the "Sepoy Mutiny". Even though the War of Independence was a joint Muslim-Hindu struggle to oust the British, the brunt of British retaliation was directed at the Muslim population of the empire employing the infamous "Divide and rule" policy. This suppression and subjugation helped set the stage for the creation of Pakistan - an Islamic state for the Muslims of British India. The greatest proponent of this became Muhammad Ali Jinnah, who later earned the title of Quaid-e-Azam (Urdu: قائد اعظم) meaning "great leader" and founder of Pakistan.

Independence and After Independence

After a 60 year formal and generally unarmed struggle for independence, Pakistan came into existence on 14th August 1947 from the British Empire. The British divided up the Indian empire into three parts: the central part, with a Hindu majority, became modern-day India, the western part along with parts of the Punjab became West Pakistan, while East Bengal (the Muslim majority part of Bengal) became East Pakistan. The Partition of India is believed by many to have been mishandled by the British since it resulted in the worst ever recorded communal riots in the region and perhaps one of the worst in modern history. An estimated 1 to 5 million Muslims, Sikhs, Hindus and others in former British India lost their lives as a direct consequence and millions more became refugee migrants to the newly formed Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Due to a hasty British retreat and mishandling of the independence of its former colonies, various disputes would remain between India and Pakistan involving Kashmir and the Rann of Kutch (Sir Creek) regions. Both nations have fought three all out wars due to these unsettled issues. Other inherited legacies of British rule included the Durand Line debate regarding the border with Afghanistan. In 1971, economic and political discontent in East Pakistan – geographically separated from West Pakistan by India – and violent political repression escalated into a civil war (see Bangladesh Liberation War) in East Pakistan and the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, resulting in the secession of East Pakistan, which formed the independent state of Bangladesh. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 created a large influx of refugees fleeing to Pakistan from Afghanistan; the largest in the world. In one of the largest covert operations in history, Pakistan and the United States supported anti-Soviet freedom fighters in Afghanistan, and the Soviets withdrew in the late 1980s. Politically since its formation, Pakistan has oscillated between democratic and military rule, while making some impressive recent economic strides.

Origin of the name

The name was coined by Cambridge student and Muslim nationalist Choudhary Rahmat Ali. He devised the word and first published it on January 28, 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never [http://www.zyworld.com/slam33/non.htm]. He saw it as an acronym formed from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in South Asia. (P for Punjab, A for the Afghan areas of the region, K for Kashmir, S for Sindh and tan for Baluchistan, thus forming 'Pakstan.' An 'i' was later added to the English rendition of the name to ease pronunciation, producing Pakistan.) The word also captured in the Persian language the concepts of "Pak" meaning "Pure" and "stan" for "land" or "home" (as in the names of Central Asian countries in the region; Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, etc), thus giving it the meaning Land of the Pure. All Arabic-speaking countries refer to Pakistan as باکستان (Bakstaan), as the Arabic alphabet lacks the letter "P."

Politics

Domestic Politics

Main article: Politics of Pakistan

Form of Government

Politics of Pakistan Constitutionally a federal republic, with considerable autonomy to the four Provinces – Sindh, Balochistan, Punjab, and NWFP (North West Frontier Province) (Sarhad) and the state of [http://www.ajk.gov.pk Azad Kashmir] (Azad meaning Free in Urdu). The upper house is called the Senate, which has 100 seats equally distributed among the four provinces of Pakistan, with reserved seats for women and religious minorities, who may also contest the general seats. The lower house is called the National Assembly of Pakistan and has 342 seats including reserved seats for religious and ethnic minorities and women. National Assembly elections were held in October 2002, and Senate elections in February 2003. One notable outcome was the election of 91 women to Parliament – the largest number (and the largest percentage) of women in the parliament of any Muslim-majority country, according to data from the Inter-Parliamentary Union. [http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm] Members of the National Assembly are elected for five-year terms. The National Assembly elects the Prime Minister of Pakistan, who then appoints selected members of the National Assembly and Senate as federal ministers in the cabinet. The Electoral College of Pakistan – consisting of the Senate, National Assembly, and the provincial assemblies – elects the President of Pakistan, who is the Head of State and Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. The President’s appointment and term are constitutionally independent of the Prime Minister’s term. Each province has a Provincial Assembly which is elected for five year terms through competitive multi-party elections, and which in turn elects a Chief Minister – the executive head of the province. Provinces also have governors who are appointed by the Federal Government.

Political Parties

Commander in Chief Before and during the creation of Pakistan in 1947, the secular and centrist Pakistan Muslim league supported the creation of Pakistan while the far-right religious parties such as the Shia Conference , Jamiat-e-Ulema-e-Hind and leaders such as Maulana Azad opposed the creation of Pakistan and supported a united India. The liberal, leftist Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) emerged as a major political player during the 1970s. During 80s, a new political anti-feudal movement started by unorthodox and educated urban dwellers of Sindh, specially Karachi, now known as MQM. Currently, the largest party in Parliament is the Pakistan Muslim League (Q) (PML-Q) and the second largest is the Pakistan Peoples Party Parliamentarians (PPPP). The PML-Q obtained a plurality in the October 2002 elections. Besides these major players, there are several other political parties active in Pakistan. See also: List of political parties in Pakistan

Foreign Relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Pakistan Foreign relations of Pakistan Pakistan was an ally of the United States for much of its early history as a modern nation-state, from the 1950s and as a member of CENTO (Central Treaty Organisation) and SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation). However, it all changed from 1965 when Pakistan went to war with India during the height of the Cold War. The US placed heavy military sanctions on Pakistan during the war forcing Pakistan to agree to the cease fire and pulling out of the war that was heading for a stalemate. After the 1965 war Pakistan had moved away from the US and its relations with China became stronger and soon both nations declared their alliance. Their relations have gone so far that it concerns the Western Super Powers. Despite US opposition, Pakistan dropped out of CENTO and SEATO, and established better relations with China and supported the resolution to move official recognition for the Chinese seat from the Taiwan-based Republic of China to the Beijing government. United States maintained a lukewarm relationship until the 1970s. In 1971, Pakistan was involved in a civil war which led the breaking away of East Pakistan, now Bangladesh. China supported Pakistan and did not accept the new nation of Bangladesh for over 3 years, even though in 1973 Pakistan itself had. The US also did not accept Bangladesh in favor of Pakistan until after the Shimla Accord. The Soviet involvement in the war and the Chinese influence on Pakistan prompted USA to bolster ties with a lost ally and the alliance would not be strengthened until the Afghan war. In the 1980s Pakistan was supplied by the US with necessary arms and helped in training supporting anti-Soviet militia in Afghanistan. US promised to provide Pakistan with F-16 fighter jets though only a few were eventually supplied due to the Pressler amendment. China however chose to remain out of this alliance, instead providing moral support. After the Afghan war, which ended in favor of the anti-Soviet Alliance, the relationship with the US deteriorated when sanctions were imposed on Pakistan along with India for their nuclear program. All military equipment aid was again barred. China came to Pakistan's aid and helped them establish ground force and aviation infrastructures. Prior to the US-Led coalition war in Afghanistan, China remained the main exporter and trader with Pakistan. After September 11th, 2001, and the subsequent American-led assault on Afghanistan, current Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf aligned his government again with the US and attempted to seal borders with Afghanistan and silence Islamic radicals along it (especially in the NWFP and other rural, fronteir provinces). Since this strategic re-alignment towards US policy, the economic and military aid has been flowing from the US to Pakistan in large numbers. Besides the US and China, Pakistan enjoys alliances with some Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. PAF pilots fly fighters for these two countries. Libya and Syria are the only two middle eastern countries with whom Pakistan enjoys great relations even though they were once Soviet allies. Pakistan is also an important member of the OIC, which brings it closer to every Muslim country. Besides OIC, Pakistan is a member of the South Asian union of SAARC. Pakistan is the second largest Muslim country in terms of population and its status as a declared nuclear power—the only Islamic nation—also plays into its role on the international scene.

Political History

Pakistan has been ruled by both democratic and military governments. General Ayub Khan was the president from 1958 to 1969, and General Yahya Khan from 1969 to 1971. Civilian rule continued from 1971 to 1977 under Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, but he was deposed by General Zia-Ul-Haq. General Zia was killed in a plane crash in 1988, after which Benazir Bhutto, daughter of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was elected as the Prime Minister of Pakistan. She was the youngest woman to ever be elected the Head of Government and the first woman to be elected as the Head of Government of a Muslim country. Her government was followed by that of Nawaz Sharif, and the two leaders alternated until the military coup by General Pervez Musharraf in 1999. Since the resignation of President Rafiq Tarar in 2001, Musharraf has been the President of Pakistan. Pakistan's first decade was marred with political unrest and instability resulting in frequent collapses of civilian democratic governments. From 1947 to 1958 as many as seven Prime Ministers of Pakistan either resigned or were ousted. This political instability paved the way for Pakistan’s first military take over. On October 7th 1958 Pakistan’s civilian and first President Iskander Mirza in collaboration with General Mohammad Ayub Khan abrogated Pakistan’s constitution and declared Martial Law. Nation-wide parliamentary elections were held in October 2002, with the PML-Q winning a plurality of seats in the National Assembly of Pakistan, and Zafarullah Khan Jamali of that party emerging as Prime Minister. Jamali resigned on June 26, 2004. PML-Q leader Chaudhry Shujaat Hussain became interim PM, and was succeeded by Finance Minister and former Citibank Vice President Shaukat Aziz, who was elected Prime Minister on August 27, 2004 by a National Assembly vote of 191 to 151.

Geography

:Main article: Geography of Pakistan Geography of Pakistan Pakistan has a total area of 803,940 square kilometers, over three times the size of the United Kingdom. It has a land area of 778,720, slightly less than the combined land areas of France and the United Kingdom put together. To the south is the Arabian Sea, with 1,046 km (650 mile) of Pakistani coastline. To Pakistan's east is India, which has a 2,912 km (1,809 mile) border with Pakistan. To its west is Iran, which has a 909 km (565 mile) border with Pakistan. To Pakistan's northwest lies Afghanistan, with a shared border of 2,430 km (1,510 miles.) China is towards the northeast and has a 523 km (325 mile) border with Pakistan. The northern and western areas of Pakistan are mountainous. Pakistani administered areas of Kashmir contain some of the highest mountains in the world, including the second tallest — K2 — and has areas of preserved moist temperate forest. K2]In the southeast, Pakistan's border with India passes through a flat desert, called the Cholistan or Thar Desert. West-central Balochistan has a high desert plateau, bordered by low mountain ranges. Most areas of the Punjab, and parts of Sindh, are fertile plains where agriculture is of great importance. Pakistan is also the home of some of the world's most ancient civilizations. Places like Mohenjodaro, Harappa, Kot Diji, Thatta, Bhambore, Gandhara, Mehrgarh, Dir are all sites that came into existance near the dawn of civilization several thousand years ago.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Pakistan

Overview

Pakistan, a developing country, is the sixth most populous in the world and has faced a number of challenges on the political and economic fronts. Although a very poor country when it became independent in 1947, in the 1960s Harvard economists proclaimed it to be a model of economic development. In each of its first four decades, Pakistan's economic growth rate was better than the global average, but imprudent policies led to a slowdown in the late 1990s. Since then, the Pakistani government has instituted wide-ranging reforms, and economic growth has accelerated in the current century. Pakistan's economic outlook has brightened and its manufacturing and financial services sectors have experienced rapid expansion. The growth of the non-agricultural sectors has changed the structure of the economy, and agriculture now only accounts for roughly one-fifth of the GDP. There has been a great improvement in its foreign exchange position and a rapid growth in hard currency reserves in recent years. In 2004 Pakistan's GDP growth rate was 8.4% which is (after China) the second-highest among the ten most populous countries in the world.[http://aric.adb.org/default11.asp?handler=country&cid=36]

Macroeconomic Reform and Prospects

According to many sources, the Pakistani government has made substantial economic reforms since 2000, and medium-term prospects for job creation and poverty reduction are the best in nearly a decade. Government revenues have greatly improved in recent years, as a result of economic growth, tax reforms - with a broadening of the tax base, and more efficient tax collection as a result of self-assessment schemes and corruption controls in the Central Board of Revenue - and the privatisation of public utilities and telecomunications. Pakistan is aggressively cutting tariffs and assisting exports by improving ports, roads, electricity supplies and irrigation projects. Islamabad has raised development spending from about 2% of GDP in the 1990s to 4% in 2003, a necessary step towards reversing the broad underdevelopment of its social sector. Liberalisation in the international textile trade has already yielded benefits for Pakistan's exports, and the country also expects to profit from freer trade in agriculture. As a large country, Pakistan hopes to take advantage of significant economies of scale, and to replace China as the largest textile manufacturer as the latter China moves up the value-added chain. These industries play to Pakistan's relative strengths in low labour costs. A perception of stability in the nation's monetary policies has contributed to a reduction in money-market interest rates, and a great expansion in the quantity of credit, changing consumption and investment patterns in the nation. Pakistan's domestic natural gas production, and its significant use of CNG in automobiles, has cushioned the effect of the oil-price shock of 2004-2005. Pakistan is also moving away from the doctrine of import substitution which some developing countries (such as Iran and India) dogmatically pursued in the twentieth century. The Pakistani government is now pursuing a export-driven model of economic growth successfully implemented by South East Asia and now highly successful in China. In 2005, the World Bank reported that :"Pakistan was the top reformer in the region and the number 10 reformer globally — making it easier to start a business, reducing the cost to register property, increasing penalties for violating corporate governance rules, and replacing a requirement to license every shipment with two-year duration licenses for traders." [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:20643510~menuPK:158937~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html] In addition, reduced tensions with India and the ongoing peace process raise new hopes for a prosperous and stable South Asia, with more intra-regional trade.
Growing Middle Class
Measured by purchasing power, Pakistan has a 30 million strong middle class enjoying per capita incomes more than $8000-$10,000, according to Dr. Ishrat Husain, Governor of the State Bank of Pakistan [http://www.pabe.org/us-chamber-press-article/PressArticlesOctober18_2004.doc]. In addition, Pakistan has a growing upper class with relatively high per capita incomes. However, Pakistan has no individuals with as much as a billion US dollars, according to Forbes magazine, and has the distinction of being the most populous nation to have no billionaires.
Economic History

First Five Decades
Economically, Pakistan was a very poor and predominantly agricultural country at the time of its independence in 1947 from British India. During its first four decades, Pakistan's economic growth rate was better than the global average. Industrial-sector growth, including manufacturing, was also above average. In the early 1960s, Pakistan was seen as a model of economic development around the world, and there was much praise for the way its economy was progressing. Many countries sought to emulate Pakistan's economic planning strategy and one of them, South Korea, copied its Second Five Year Plan, 1960-65. Not just that But World financial center in Seoul was modeled after Karachi. Later, economic mismanagement in general, and fiscally imprudent economic policies in particular, caused a large increase in the country's public debt and led to slower growth in the 1990s.
Economic Resilience
Historically, Pakistan's overall economic output (GDP) has grown every year since a 1951 recession. Despite this record of sustained growth, Pakistan's economy had, until a few years ago, been characterized as unstable and highly vulnerable to external and internal shocks. However, the economy proved to be unexpectedly resilient in the face of multiple adverse events concentrated into a four-year period —
- the Asian financial crisis;
- economic sanctions — according to Colin Powell, Pakistan was "sanctioned to the eyeballs";
- global recession;
- a severe drought — the worst in Pakistan's history, lasting four years;
- heightened perceptions of risk as a result of military tensions with India — with as many as a million troops on the border, and predictions of impending (potentially nuclear) war; and
- the post-9/11 military action in neighboring Afghanistan, with a massive influx of refugees from that country. Despite these adverse events, Pakistan's economy kept growing, and economic growth accelerated towards the end of this period. This resilience has led to a change in perceptions of the economy, with leading international institutions such as the IMF, World Bank, and the ADB praising Pakistan's performance in the face of adversity.
Recent economic history and trends
Since about the turn of the century, the Pakistani government has instituted wide-ranging reforms, and economic growth has accelerated in the current century. Pakistan's economic outlook has brightened and its manufacturing and financial services sectors have experienced rapid expansion. The growth of the non-agricultural sectors has changed the structure of the economy, and agriculture now only accounts for roughly one-fifth of the GDP. There has been a great improvement in its foreign exchange position and a rapid growth in hard currency reserves as a result of its current account surplus. In the fiscal year ending June 30, 2005, Pakistan's GDP growth rate was 8.4% which is (after China) the second-highest among the ten most populous countries in the world. Its exports grew by as much as 17% and the country also saw increasing foreign investments in the IT sector, thanks to cheap labor, a low tax rate and a large pool of English speakers.
Structure of production

Stock Market
In the first three years of the current century, Pakistan's KSE-100 stock market index (Karachi Stock Exchange) was the best-performing major market index in the world, driven in part by profit growth, high dividend yields and greater transparency in publicly traded companies as a result of reforms enacted by the Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan.
Currency
Securities and Exchange Commission of Pakistan The basic unit of currency is the Rupee, which is divided into 100 paisas. Since the turn of the century, a strengthening economy and large current-account surplus has caused the rupee's exchange rate to rise in value. In response, Pakistan's central bank has prevented the rupee from rising too much, by lowering interest rates and buying dollars, in order to preserve the country's export competitiveness. As of 2005, one US dollar is approximately equal to 60 rupees.
Industry

Manufacturing and Finance
Pakistan's manufacturing sector has experienced double-digit growth in recent years, with large-scale manufacturing growing by 18% in 2003. A reduction in the fiscal deficit has resulted in less government borrowing in the domestic money market, lower interest rates, and an expansion in private sector lending to businesses and consumers. Foreign exchange reserves continued to reach new levels in 2003, supported by robust export growth and steady worker remittances. export
Tax Incentives & IT Industry
The Government of Pakistan has, over the last few years, granted numerous incentives to technology companies wishing to do business in Pakistan. A combination of decade-plus tax holidays, zero duties on computer imports, government incentives for venture capital and a variety of programs for subsidizing technical education, are intended to give impetus to the nascent Information Technology industry. This in recent years has resulted in impressive growth in that sector. Pakistan saw an increase in IT exports of 50% from 2003-4 to 2004-5, with total exports standing at $48.5 million. This year the government has set an export goal of $72 million. Exports account for 11% of the total revenues of the IT sector in Pakistan. Compared to its neighbor, India, Pakistan's IT sector is still in the infantile stage, but recent trends have led economists to be optimistic about the IT industries future prospects in Pakistan.
Technology & Internet
Paging and mobile (cellular) telephone were adopted early and freely. Cellular phones and the Internet were adopted through a rather laissez-faire policy with a proliferation of private service providers that led to fast adoption. Both have taken off and in the last few years of the 1990s and first few years of the 2000s. With a rapid increase in the number of internet users and ISPs, and a large English-speaking population, Pakistani society has seen major changes.
- Pakistan has more than 20 million Internet users as of 2005. The country is said to have a potential to absorb up to 50 million mobile phone Internet users in the next 5 years thus a potential of nearly 1 million connections per month.
- Almost all of the main government departments, organizations and institutions have their own websites.
- The use of search engines and instant messaging services is also booming. Pakistanis are some of the most ardent chatters on the Internet, communicating with users all over the world. Recent years have seen a huge increase in the use of online marriage services, for example, leading to a major re-alignment of the tradition of arranged marriages.
- As of 2005 there were 6 cell phone companies operating in the country with nearly 28 million mobile phone users in the country.
- Wireless local loop and the landline telephony sector has also been liberalized and private sector has entered thus increasing the teledensity from less than 3% to more than 10% in span of two years.
Agriculture, Energy and Natural Resources
teledensity Pakistan's principal natural resources are arable land, water, and extensive natural gas and petroleum reserves.
Agriculture
About 28% of Pakistan's total land area is under cultivation and is watered by the largest irrigation systems in the world. Water resources include several major rivers, fed by meltwater from snow and glaciers in some of the highest mountains ranges of the world — the Karakorams, Himalayas, and the Hindukush. Other important sources are tube-wells tapping into large aquifers. The most important crops are cotton, wheat, and rice. Other important crops are sugarcane, maize, sorghum, millets, pulses, oil seeds, barley, fish, fruits and vegetables. Pakistan also produces some of the world's best honey. Pakistan is a net exporter of foodgrains.
Energy
Pakistan has extensive energy resources, including fairly sizable natural gas reserves, oil reserves and coal. It also has a large potential for the further development of hydroelectric power. Domestic petroleum production totals only about half the country's oil needs. Pakistan is operating, constructing or planning to construct several nuclear reactors to meet its rapidly growing electricity requirements.
Minerals
Important minerals found in Pakistan are gypsum, limestone, chromites, iron ore, rock salt, silver, gold, precious stones, gems, marble, copper, coal, graphite, sulphur, fire clay, silica. The salt range in Punjab Province has large deposits of pure salt. Balochistan province is a mineral rich area having sub-stantial mineral, oil and gas reserves which have not been exploited to their full capacity. The province has significant quantities of copper, chromite and iron, and pockets of antimony and zinc in the south and gold in the far west. Natural gas was discovered near Sui in 1952, and the province has been gradually developing its oil and gas projects over the past fifty years. [http://www.himalmag.com/2002/july/profile_2.htm]
Trade

Exports
Pakistan exports software, rice, furniture, cotton fiber, cement, tiles, marble, textiles, clothing, leather goods, sports goods (renowned for footballs/soccer balls), surgical instruments, electrical appliances, carpets, and rugs, ice cream, livestock meat, chicken, powdered milk, wheat, seafood (especially shrimp/prawns), vegetables, processed food items, Pakistani assembled Suzukis (to Afghanistan and maybe other countries), defence equipment (submarines, tanks, radars), salt, marble, onyx, engineering goods, fighter planes, and many other items.
Imports
Pakistan's single largest import category is petroleum and petroleum products. Other imports include trucks, automobiles, and industrial machinery. Pakistan also imports computers, computer parts, construction machinery, medicines, pharmaceutical products, food items, airplanes, defence equipment, steel, toys, electronics, other consumer items.
Tourism
petroleum Pakistan's culture, people and landscape are very diverse. Therefore tourism has, in recent years, become a large industry in Pakistan. What is now Pakistan has in the past been invaded and occupied by many different peoples, including Huns, Persians, Arabs, Turks, Mongols and various Eurasian groups, all of which left differences in culture among the different ethnic groups in matters such as dress, food, and religion, especially where indigenous pre-Islamic customs differ from Islamic practices. It is home to a large ancient civilization rivalling those of Egypt and Mesopotamia and also of many smaller civilizations which settled there. There are many tourist attractions in Pakistan. In the North, some of the highest mountains in the world, interest mountain climbers and adventurers from around the world. The Northern Areas of Pakistan are one of the most scenic places to be found with many old army fortresses, towers and other architecture. Among the most beautiful valleys in this area are Chitral and Hunza. The inhabitants of the region are known for their tradition of hospitality, offering food and residence for tourists. In the east, the Punjab province offers a view into the many different civilizations that settled there. Islamic Mughal architecture is very common, such as Badshahi Masjid andthe Shalimar Gardens in Lahore. Pakistan's film industry, Lollywood is also present here.
Demographics
Lollywood Main article: Demographics of Pakistan
Population Statistics
Pakistan has the world's sixth largest population, more than Russia, but less than Brazil. Because of Pakistan's high growth rate, it is expected to overtake Brazil in population before 2025. Based on the high fertility rates of the 1980s, demographers had projected that Pakistan would be the third most populous nation by 2050. However, from 1988 onward, Pakistan's fertility rate has fallen faster than that of any other country except China [http://www.gfeeney.com/pubs/2003-pakistan-fertility-2/2003-pakistan-fertility-2.pdf (Feeney and Alam, 2003, PDF)]. It is now projected that its population will stabilize to a more sustainable level.
Religion
1988 The majority of the people of Pakistan are Muslim (adherents of Islam). Most (75%) are Sunni, some (20%) are Shia. Pakistan has a small non-Muslim population whose numbers remain somewhat difficult to ascertain due to various social conditions within Pakistan, including the inability of the census to account for every person and some alleged discrimination and hesitancy by some to accurately report their professed faith. According to most sources Pakistan's religius minorities consist largely of Christians (2.5%) or 3.9 million, while the remaining 1.2% includes Hindus, Buddhists, Zoroastrians, Sikhs, Jews, and Animists (mainly the Kalash in Chitral). Pakistan's religious demographics were influenced by the partition of British India, which led to the fleeing of 7 million Muslims into Pakistan from India and 6 million Hindus and Sikhs from Pakistan to India and led to a larger Muslim majority than had previously existed. Pakistan is also the birthplace of one major world religions, Sikhism and two branches of Buddhism Mahayana Buddhism and Vajrayana Buddhism. Although today there are few Sikhs in Pakistan, Pakistani Punjab was the birthplace of Guru Nanak, the founder of Sikhism as well the Sikh conqueror Ranjit Singh. In addition, Pakistan is also the birthplace of Mahayana Buddhism, the form of Buddhism practiced by most Buddhists today, including those in China, India, Japan, Vietnam, and Korea. It is also the birthplace of Vajrayana (Tantric) Buddhism. Also, the early formation of the Hindu religion may have taken place here, either amongst the Indus Valley Civilization or in the wake of the Indo-Aryan migration into the area and with the composition of the earliest of the sacred scriptures, the Rig Veda, but most academics believe Hinduism probably formed along the Ganges River further east instead.
Languages
Urdu and English are both recognized as the official languages of Pakistan. English is used in government and corporate business and by the educated urban elite. Private as well as public universities use English as the medium of instruction for degree courses. Urdu is the lingua franca of the people, being widely spoken as a second language, although it is the mother tongue of only 8% of the population, mainly Muhajirs (Muslim refugees from India after 1947) and Punjabis of urban areas. Besides these, nearly all Pakistanis speak mutually related provincial Indo-European languages, of which the most widely spoken is Punjabi, followed by Pashto, Sindhi, and Balochi. Other Indo-European languages spoken in Pakistan include Seraiki, Dari, Hindko, Pothohari, Gujarati, Shina, Wakhi, Kashmiri, Khowar and many others. In addition, small groups of non-Indo-European languages are also spoken including Brahui which is a Dravidian language and Burushaski which is a language isolate.
Ethnic Groups
Punjabis comprise the largest ethnic group in the country. Other important ethnic groups include: Pashtun/Afghans, Sindhis, Balochis, Muhajirs and Seraikis. The numerous other ethnic groups are mainly found in the northern parts of the country such as Turwalis, Kafiristanis, Hindko, Brahui, Kashmiris, Khowar, Shina and so forth. There are also sizeable numbers of refugees from neighboring Afghanistan, who are found mainly in the NWFP and Baluchistan - in the 1980s, Pakistan accommodated over three million Afghan refugees - the largest refugee population in the world, which includes Pashtuns, Tajiks, and Hazaras among others. A sizeable number of Bengali immigrants are mainly concentrated in Karachi, while hundreds of thousands of refugees from Iran are scattered throughout the country.[http://www.minorityrights.org/admin/Download/Pdf/MRGPakistanReport.pdf] People of Sephardic Jewish descent are also found in the country, but probably number less than 200 since the creation of Israel. There is also a sizeable community of Persians, Chinese, Myanmarians (Burmese), and Africans; ther

People's Republic of China

The People's Republic of China (PRC; Simplified Chinese: 中华人民共和国, Traditional Chinese: 中華人民共和國; Pinyin: Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó ), commonly referred to as China, is an East Asian country. The exact meaning of PRC and China varies. In an ongoing dispute, the PRC claims sovereignty over Taiwan and some neighboring islands, whose control was never relinquished by the Republic of China. The PRC asserts the Republic of China to be an illegitimate and supplanted entity and administratively categorizes Taiwan as the 23rd province of the PRC. (See China and Political status of Taiwan for more information.) The term "mainland China" is sometimes used to denote the area under the PRC's rule, usually excluding the two Special Administrative Regions, Hong Kong and Macau. The PRC refers to the period of its rule as New China (新中国) whenever it contrasts itself with China before 1949. In some contexts, particularly in economics, trade and sports events, China and People's Republic of China is often used to refer to the PRC with Hong Kong and Macau excluded.

Geography and climate

The PRC is the largest country in area in East Asia, the [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2147rank.html fourth largest] in the world and the second largest by land area. It borders 14 nations (counted clockwise): Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar, India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Russia, Mongolia and North Korea.North Korea The PRC contains a large variety of landscape. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, are found extensive and densely populated alluvial plains; the shore of the South China Sea is more mountainous and southern China is dominated by hill country and lower mountain ranges. In the central-east are found the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Huang He and Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). Other major rivers include the Xijiang River, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west, major mountain ranges, notably the Himalaya with China's highest point Mount Everest, and high plateaus feature among the more arid landscape of deserts such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. Due to a prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices dust storms have become usual in the spring in China. According to China's Environmental Protection Agency, the Gobi Desert has been expanding "like a tsunami" and is a major source of dust storms which affect Mainland China and other parts of northeast Asia such as Taiwan, Korea and Japan. Dust from the northern plains has been tracked to the West Coast of the United States. River management (human waste dumping, factory pollution, and water extraction for irrigation and drinking) and dust erosion are problems affecting other countries that have become recent important concerns for relations between China and its neighboring countries.

History

After World War II, the Chinese Civil War between the Communist Party of China and the Kuomintang ended in 1949 with the Communists in control of mainland China and the Kuomintang in control of Taiwan and some outlying islands of Fujian. On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong emphatically declared the People's Republic of China, establishing a communist state, and proclaiming "the Chinese people have stood up."communist state Supporters of the Maoist Era claim that under Mao, China's unity and sovereignty was assured for the first time in a century, and there was development of infrastructure, industry, healthcare, and education, which raised standard of living for the average Chinese. They also believe that campaigns such as the Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution were essential in jumpstarting China's development and purifying its culture. Supporters may also doubt statistics or accounts given for death tolls or other damages incurred by Mao's campaigns. Critics of Mao's regime assert that Mao's administration imposed strict controls over everyday life, and believe that campaigns such as the Great Leap Forward and Cultural Revolution contributed to or caused millions of deaths, incurred severe economic costs, and damaged China's cultural heritage. The Great Leap Forward in particular preceded a massive famine in China which, according to numbers guessed by credible Western and Eastern [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat1.htm sources], 20–30 million people died; most Western and many Chinese analysts attribute this to the Great Leap Forward, while others, including Mao at the time, attribute this to natural disasters; still others doubt this figure entirely, or claim that many more people died due to famine or other consequences of political chaos during the rule of Chiang Kai-Shek. Following the dramatic economic failures of the early 1960s, Mao stepped down from his position as chairman of the People's Republic. The National People's Congress elected Liu Shaoqi as Mao's successor. Mao remained head of the Party but was removed from day to day management of economic affairs which came under the control of a more moderate leadership under the dominant influence of Liu Shaoqi, Deng Xiaoping and others who initiated economic reforms. In 1966, Mao launched the Cultural Revolution, which is viewed by his opponents (including both Western analysts and many Chinese people who were youth at the time) as a strike back at his rivals by mobilizing the youth of the country in support of his thought and purging the moderate leadership, but is viewed by his supporters as an experiment in direct democracy and a genuine attempt at purging Chinese society of corruption and other negative influences. Disorder followed but gradually under the leadership of Zhou Enlai moderate forces regained influence. After Mao's death, Deng Xiaoping, seen as the leader of the economic reformists, succeeded in winning the power struggle, and Mao's widow, Jiang Qing and her associates, the Gang of Four, who had assumed control of the country, were arrested and put on trial. Since then, the government has gradually and greatly loosened governmental control over people's personal lives, and began transitioning China's planned economy into a mixed economy. Supporters of the economic reforms point to the rapid development of the consumer and export sectors of the economy, the creation of an urban middle class that now constitutes 15% of the population, higher living standards (which is shown via dramatic increases in GDP per capita, consumer spending, life expectancy, literacy rate, and total grain output) and a much wider range of personal rights and freedoms for average Chinese as evidence of the success of the reforms. Critics of the economic reforms claim that the reforms have caused wealth disparity, environmental pollution, rampant corruption, widespread unemployment associated with layoffs at inefficient state-owned enterprises, and has introduced often unwelcome cultural influences. Consequently they believe that China's culture has been corrupted, the poor have been reduced to a hopeless abject underclass, and that the social stability is threatened. They are also of the opinion that various political reforms, such as moves towards popular elections, have been unfairly nipped in the bud. Regardless of either view, today, the public perception of Mao has improved dramatically, and images of Mao and Mao related objects have become fashionable.state-owned enterprise Despite these concessions to capitalism, the Communist Party of China remains in control and has maintained repressive policies against groups which it feels are threats, such as Falun Gong and the separatist movement in Tibet. Supporters of these policies claim that these policies safeguard stability in a society that is torn apart by class differences and rivalries, has no tradition of civil participation, and limited rule of law. Opponents of these policies claim that these policies severely violate norms of human rights that the international community recognizes, and further claim that this results in a police state, which creates an atmosphere of fear and ignorance. In 1989, the death of pro-reform official Hu Yaobang led to the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989, during which students and others held protests in Beijing's Tiananmen Square and elsewhere to campaign for democratic reform and freedom. The protests ended on June 3 - June 4 when PLA troops entered the square, killing hundreds. The event brought worldwide condemnation and sanctions against the PRC government. The PRC government itself has since remained relatively silent on the issue, though it has also defended it by saying that it was necessary for the continued stability of the country. The People's Republic of China adopted its current constitution on December 4, 1982.

Politics

1982 (NPC), highest legistlative body, of China convenes.]] In the technical terminology of political science the PRC was a communist state for much of the 20th century, and is still considered a communist state by many, though not all political scientists. Attempts to characterize the nature of the China's political structure into a single, simple category are typically seen as lacking sufficient depth to be satisfactory. A major reason for this is China's political history: for over two thousand years, prior to 1949, the state had been ruled by some form of centralized imperial monarchy with strong Confucian influences, which have left significant traces on subsequent political and social structures. This was followed by a chaotic succession of largely authoritarian Chinese Nationlist governments as well as warlord-held administration since the first Chinese Revolution of 1912. The PRC regime has variously been described as authoritarian, communist, socialist and various combinations of those terms. It has also been described as a communist government. This may be called state capitalist by more left-leaning communists. It appears China is slowly becoming capitalist in its economic system. China recently released an official statement on its political structure, upholding the notion that the state should be ruled by democratic means. The government of the PRC is controlled by the Communist Party of China. There are some other parties in PRC, though they are often closely associated or subparties within the CPC. The effect of the other parties on the government remains minimal. While there have been some moves toward political liberalization, in that contested elections are now held at the village level and legislatures have shown some assertiveness from time to time, the party retains effective control over governmental appointments. While the state uses authoritarian methods to deal with challenges to its rule, it simultaneously attempts to reduce dissent by improving the economy, allowing expression of personal grievances, and giving lenient treatment to persons expressing dissent whom the regime does not believe are organizers. Censorship of political speech is routine. The Communist Party has a policy of suppressing any protests and organizations that it considers a threat to its power, as was the case after the Tianamen Square protests. However, there are limits to the repression that the Party is willing or able to achieve. The media have become increasingly active in publicizing social problems and exposing corruption and inefficiency at lower levels of government, although recently the PRC has tended to increase crackdowns on reporters. The Party has also been rather unsuccessful at controlling information, and in some cases has had to change policies in response to public outrage. Although organized opposition against the Party is not tolerated, demonstrations over local issues are frequent and increasingly tolerated. The support that the Communist Party of China has among the Chinese population is unclear, as there are no national elections, and private conversations and anecdotal information often reveals conflicting views. Many in China appear appreciative of the role that the government plays in maintaining social stability, which has allowed the economy to grow without interruption. Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor in the PRC, and the growing discontent with widespread corruption within the leadership and officials.

Ongoing debates

The PRC government argues that the notion of human rights should include economic standards of living and measures of health and economic prosperity. In other words, when critiquing its internal situation, it sees the rise in the standard of living of the Chinese people as an indicator of improvement of the human rights situation, and when looking at the situation abroad, often notes the high rate of crime and/or poverty in places reputedly having a high standard of human rights. However, Western governments and NGOs have argued that arbitrary and lengthy incommunicado detention, forced confessions, torture, and mistreatment of prisoners as well as severe restrictions on freedom of speech, the press, assembly, association, religion, privacy, and worker rights are violations of their definition of human rights. They argue the issues stem from the PRC government's intolerance of dissent and the inadequacy of legal safeguards for individual political rights. The issue is covered in article Human rights in the People's Republic of China The PRC describes itself as a multiethnic state providing ethnic autonomy in the form of autonomous administrative entities. PRC policy gives advantages to ethnic minorities in areas such as high school or college admission and government employment. It also officially condemns Han chauvinism. However, it currently faces independence movements in Tibet, and Xinjiang. Independence groups and many foreign observers are critical of the PRC's ethnic policies. They consider practices such as the organization and generous financial encouragement of Han Chinese movement into non-Han Chinese areas, to be chauvinistic and colonial, bent on demographically swamping non-Han Chinese areas and reducing the possibility that any independence movement could succeed. Within China, many people are also critical of the above policies. For example, Han Chinese in Xinjiang tend to be resentful and perceive of themselves as being treated as "second-class citizens" as a result of policies that favour minorities. Many people also consider these policies to have encouraged the formation of separatist movements and to have threatened the territorial integrity of China.

Political divisions

The People's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces (省); the government of the People's Republic of China considers Táiwān (台湾), which is actually controlled by the Republic of China, to be its 23rd province. (See Political status of Taiwan for more information.) Apart from provinces there are 5 autonomous regions (自治区) containing concentrations of several minorities; 4 municipalities (直辖市) for China's largest cities and 2 Special Administrative Regions (SAR) (特别行政区) governed by the PRC. The 22 provinces, 5 autonomous regions and 4 municipalities can be collectively referred to as "mainland China", a term which usually excludes Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan. mainland China The following are a list of administrative divisions of areas under the control of the People's Republic of China. Provinces（省）
- Ānhuī (安徽)
- Fújiàn (福建)
- Gānsù (甘肃)
- Guǎngdōng (广东)
- Guìzhōu (贵州)
- Hǎinán (海南)
- Héběi (河北)
- Hēilóngjiāng (黑龙江)
- Hénán (河南)
- Húběi (湖北)
- Húnán (湖南)
- Jiāngsū (江苏)
- Jiāngxī (江西)
- Jílín (吉林)
- Liáoníng (辽宁)
- Qīnghǎi (青海)
- Shaanxi (Shǎnxī) (陕西)
- Shāndōng (山东)
- Shānxī (山西)
- Sìchuān (四川)
- Yúnnán (云南)
- Zhèjiāng (浙江) Autonomous regions（自治区）
- Guǎngxī (广西壮族自治区)
- Inner Mongolia (Nèi Měnggǔ) (内蒙古自治区)
- Níngxià (宁夏回族自治区)
- Xīnjiāng (新疆维吾尔自治区)
- Tibet (Xīzàng) (西藏自治区)
Municipalities（直辖市）
- Běijīng (北京市)
- Chóngqìng (重庆市)
- Shànghǎi (上海市)
- Tiānjīn (天津市)
Special Administrative Regions（特别行政区）
- Hong Kong (Xiānggǎng) (香港特别行政区)
- Macau (Àomén) (澳门特别行政区)
Claimed by the PRC, but governed by Republic of China
- Táiwān (台湾) (disputed)
Claimed by the Republic of China, but given up by PRC
- Outer Mongolia

Foreign relations

The People's Republic of China maintains diplomatic relations with most countries in the world, but makes acknowledging its claim to Taiwan and severing any official ties with the Republic of China (ROC) government a prerequisite for diplomatic exchanges. It actively opposes foreign travels by current and former political officials of Taiwan, such as Lee Teng-hui and Chen Shui-bian, and other persons it sees politically dangerous, such as Tenzin Gyatso (considering Tibet) and and Li Hongzhi (considering Falun Gong). Falun Gong]] In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative for "China" in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council; it is also considered a founding member although the PRC was not in control at the founding of the UN. (See China and the United Nations) It was for a time a member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, but now is an observer. Much of the current foreign policy is based on the concept of China's peaceful rise. Sino-Japanese relations have been strained several times in the past few decades by Japan's refusal to acknowledge its past war crimes and violations to Chinese satisfaction, most notable among which is the Nanjing Massacre. Recent incidents with the United States include the United States bombing of Chinese embassy in Belgrade during the Kosovo conflict in May 1999, alleged in nuclear secrets espionage reported in Cox report, US spy plane on mission colliding with Chinese jet flighter near Hainan Island in April 2001. Some NGOs and Western governments have criticized China for alleged human rights abuses and its foreign relations with many Western Nations suffered following the Tiananmen Square Incident in 1989. In addition to Taiwan, China is involved in several other territorial disputes. The PRC makes all of these claims on irredentist grounds, while the opposing claimants tend towards viewing irredentism as a baseless ideology or view the PRC as being motivated by resources, military considerations, or nationalism considerations:
- With India:
- Aksai Chin, administered by China, claimed by India
- Arunachal Pradesh / South Tibet, administered by India, claimed by China
- Over islands on the East China Sea or South China Sea:
- Paracel Islands, administered by China, claimed by Vietnam and the ROC
- Spratly Islands: the People’s Republic of China, the Republic of China (Taiwan), and Vietnam each claim sovereignty over the entire group, while Malaysia, the Philippines, and Brunei claim parts of the group.
- Senkaku Islands / Diaoyu Islands, administered by Japan, claimed by the PRC and the ROC In 2004, Russia agreed to transfer Yinlong Island as well as one half of Heixiazi Island to China, ending a long-standing border dispute between Russia and China. Both islands are found at the confluence of the Amur and Ussuri Rivers, and were until then administered by Russia and claimed by China. The event was meant to foster feelings of reconciliation and cooperation between the two countries by their leaders, but it has also sparked different degrees of discontents on both sides. The transfer has been ratified by both the Chinese National People's Congress and the Russian State Duma but has yet to be carried out to date. Outside official opinion, it is popular for nationalists to make irredentist claims to Mongolia, Tuva and Outer Manchuria, as well as (less commonly) the Ryukyu Islands, Bhutan, the Hukawng Valley in northern Myanmar, and Central Asia southeast of Lake Balkhash.

Military

Lake Balkhash The PRC maintains military forces consisting of army, navy, air force, and strategic nuclear forces. Its 2.25 million strong force makes it the largest army, in terms of sheer number of troops, in the world. The People's Liberation Army's official budget for 2005 is $30 billion, possibly excluding foreign weapons purchases, military-related R&D. the paramilitary PAP and possible hidden budget. However, even the highest estimates set the military spending considerably less in relative than e.g. the United States. The PRC, despite possession of nuclear weapons and delivery systems, is widely seen both within and outside of China as having only limited ability to project military power beyond its borders and is not generally considered to be a true superpower, although it is widely seen as a major regional power. This is due to the limited effectiveness of its navy, such as lacking aircraft carriers, and air-force, which is large but generally considered obsolete by western standards. The PRC has embarked on a massive modernization program for its military. The PRC has been actively purchasing state-of-the-art fighters such as Su-27, Su-30 and has also been producing its own relatively modern fighters. A comprehensive effort has been undertaken to modernise the air-defense after observing the effects of air-superiority in Iraq. The air-defence revolves around the ultra-modern S-300 Surface-to-Air missile, which is objectively considered the best aircraft-intercepting system in the world. The PRC is also rapidly upgrading its armoured and rapid-reaction forces by enhancing their electronics and targeting capabilities. In recent years, much attention has been focused on building a navy with blue-water capability.

Largest cities

Su-30]] Su-30] Su-30] The PRC has dozens of major cities, including 3 of the 55 global cities.

Economy

global cities Beginning in late 1978 the Chinese leadership has been reforming the economy from a Soviet-style centrally planned economy to a more market-oriented economy but still within a rigid political framework of Communist Party control. To this end the authorities have switched to a system of household responsibility in agriculture in place of the old collectivization, increased the authority of local officials and plant managers in industry, permitted a wide variety of small-scale enterprise in services and light manufacturing, and opened the economy to increased foreign trade and investment. Prices controls were also relaxed. This has resulted in mainland China's shift from a command economy to a mixed economy with both communist and capitalist tendencies. The government has tended to not emphasize equality as when it first began and instead emphasized raising personal income and consumption and introducing new management systems to help increase productivity. The government also has focused on foreign trade as a major vehicle for economic growth, for which purpose it set up over 2000 Special Economic Zones (SEZ) where investment laws are relaxed in order to attract foreign capital. The result has been a quadrupling of GDP since 1978. In 1999, with its 1.25 billion people and a GDP of just $3,800 per capita, the PRC became the sixth largest economy in the world by exchange rate and third largest in the world after the European Union and the U.S. by purchasing power. The average annual income of a Chinese worker is $1,300. Chinese economic development is believed to be among the fastest in the world, about 7-8% per year according to Chinese government statistics. China is now a member of the World Trade Organization. Mainland China has a reputation as being a low-cost manufacturer, particularly due to its abundant flexible non-unionised inexpensive labor. An unskilled worker at a Chinese factory in the rural area costs a company under $1/hour, however, the prices of goods and services in China are lower than in more developed countries. Furthermore, the Chinese worker preference not to join a trade union. This is a substantive benefit to employers as it adds a level of flexibility to labor relations not enjoyed in most other parts of the world. A possible reason for this could be work ethics, or it is also conceivable it is driven by a fear that unions will be abused by the Communist Party of China to identify dissidents. (See list of Chinese dissidents.) Another aspect of the Chinese economy that is often overlooked is the low cost of non labor inputs. This is due in part to an overly competitive environment with many producers and a general tendency towards an oversupply and low prices. There is also the continued existence of price controls and supply guarantees left over from the former Soviet style command economy. As State owned enterprises continue to be dismantled and workers shift to higher productivity sectors, this deflationary effect will continue to put pressure on prices in the economy. Preferential tax incentives are also given as a direct fiscal incentive to manufacture in China, whether for export or for the local market of 1.3 billion. China is attempting to harmonize the system of taxes and duties it imposes on enterprises, domestic and foreign alike. As a result, preferential tax and duty policies that benefit exporters in special economic zones and coastal cities have been targeted for revision. China's high growth in the global markets has caused notable disputes, especially the trade inbalance with the United States. The discrepancy is largely attributable to the fact that Chinese corporations can produce many products desired in the US far more cheaply than American factories can, and expensive products produced in America are in large part too expensive for Chinese consumers. Another factor cited by some people was the unfavorable exchange rate between the Chinese yuan and the United States dollar to which it used to be pegged. On July 21, 2005 the People's Bank of China announced that it would move to a floating peg, allowing its currency to move by 0.3% a day. With the elimination of clothing quotas, China stands to take over a large chunk of the worldwide textile industry. [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/08/26/business/worldbusiness/26CHIN.html?th], [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/02/business/02CHIN.html?th] In 2003, China's GDP in terms of purchasing power parity reached $6.4 trillion, becoming the [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/rankorder/2001rank.html second-largest in the world]. Using conventional measurements it is ranked 6th. With its large population this still gives an average GNP per person of only an estimated $5,000, about 1/7th that of the United States. The officially reported growth rate for 2003 was 9.1%. Due to its size and ancient culture, China has a tradition of being a leading economy in the world. Trying to regain some of that glory is certainly a strong motivation for many Chinese." The economic regions of Mainland China covered under the strategies promulgated by the central government. The disparity in wealth between the coastal strip and the remainder of the country remains wide. To counter this potentially destabilizing problem, the government has initiated the China Western Development strategy (2000), the Revitalize Northeast China initiative (2003), and the Rise of Central China policy (2004), which are all aimed at helping the interior of China to catch up.

Transportation

Transportation in the mainland of the People's Republic of China has improved remarkably starting in the late 1990s as part of a government effort to link the entire nation through a series of expressways known as the National Trunk Highway System. Private car ownership is increasing but remains uncommon, in large part due to government policies designed to make car ownership expensive through the use of taxes and toll roads. Air travel has increased considerably, although remains out of reach for most ordinary mainland Chinese. Long distance transportation for most mainland Chinese is still dominated by the railways and bus systems. Cities are increasingly building underground or light rail systems, such as in Shanghai. Hong Kong has one of the most modern transport systems in the world.

Society

Demographics

Ethnicity and race

Officially the PRC views itself as a multi-ethnic nation with 56 recognized ethnicities. The majority Han Chinese ethnicity makes up about 93% of the population and is the majority over about half of the area of the PRC. The Han Chinese itself is relatively racially heterogeneous, and can also be conceived as a large category bringing together many diverse ethnic subgroups sharing common cultural and linguistic characteristics.

Language

The majority Han Chinese speak varieties of spoken Chinese, which can be regarded as either one language or a family of languages. The largest subdivision of spoken Chinese is Mandarin Chinese, with more speakers than any other language on Earth. A standardized version of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect, known as Putonghua, is taught in schools and used as the official language of the entire country.

Issues

The People's Republic of China, in an attempt to limit its population growth, has adopted a policy which limits urban families (ethnic minorities such as Tibetans are an exception) to one child and rural families to two children when the first is female. Because males are considered to be more economically valuable in rural areas, there appears to be a high incidence of sex selective abortion and child abandonment in rural areas to ensure that the second child is male. (See National Geographic's China's Lost Children). This policy only applies to the Han majority. There are numerous orphanages for the children that are abandoned, but approximately 98% of these children are not adopted, and stay in the orphanage until they are an adult. China has instituted a regulated program to permit international adoption, although this only affects a small percentage of the children. By 2000 this has resulted in a sex ratio at birth of 117 boys being born for every 100 girls which is substantially higher than the natural rate (106 to 100) (but comparable to the ratios in places such as the Caucasus, Taiwan, Hong Kong and South Korea). Although some of this problematic ratio is attributable to sexism, recently, it has been found that it correlates with hepatitis as well. The PRC government is attempting to mitigate this problem by emphasizing the worth of women and has gone so far as to criminalize medical providers from disclosing to parents the sex of an expected baby. The result of the sex ratio bias is that there are now 30–40 million Chinese males who cannot marry Chinese women. Apart from emigration, this may cause an increase in prostitution. In some cases, this has led to kidnappings, where women are abducted from their families, and forcibly sold as wives in distant villages.

Health

The PRC has several emerging public health problems: health problems related to air and water pollution, a progressing HIV-AIDS epidemic and hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers. The HIV epidemic, in addition to the usual routes of infection, was exacerbated in the past by unsanitary practices used in the collection of blood in rural areas. The problem with tobacco is complicated by the concentration of most cigarette sales in a government controlled monopoly. The government, dependent on tobacco revenue, seems hesitant in its response to the tobacco compared with other public health problems. Hepatitis B is endemic in mainland China, with a large percentage of the population contracting the disease; about 10% of these are seriously affected. A program initiated in 2002 will attempt over the next 5 years to vaccinate all newborns in mainland China. In November 2002, the pneumonia-like SARS surfaced in Guangdong province. The epidemic spread into neighboring Hong Kong, Vietnam, and other countries via international travelers. The strains of avian flu outbreaks in recent years among local poultry and birds, along with a number of its citizens. While the virus is currently mainly animal-human transmissible, experts expect an avian flu pandemic that would affect the region, should the virus morph to be human-human transmissible. The recent pig-to-human transmission of Streptococcus suis bacteria, which has led to an unsually high number of deaths in and around Sichuan province.

Education

To provide for its population in mainland China, the PRC has a vast and varied school system. There are preschools, kindergartens, schools for the deaf and blind, key schools (similar to college preparatory schools), primary schools, secondary schools (comprising junior and senior middle schools, secondary agricultural and vocational schools, regular secondary schools, secondary teachers' schools, secondary technical schools, and secondary professional schools), and various institutions of higher learning (consisting of regular colleges and universities, professional colleges, and short-term vocational universities).

Culture

Streptococcus suis, in Peking opera]] Peking opera China's traditional values were derived from the orthodox version of Confucianism/conservatism, which was taught in schools and was even part of imperial civil service examinations. However, the term Confucianism is somewhat problematic in that the system of thought which reached it high-water mark in Qing Dynasty imperial China was in fact composed of several strains of thought, including Legalism, which in many ways departed from the original spirit of Confucianism; indeed by the height of imperial China, the right of the individual ethical conscience and the right to criticise tyrannical governments and demand change had largely been prohibited by "orthodox" thinkers. Currently, there are neo-Confucians who believe that contrary to that line of thought, democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values". See [http://www.columbia.edu/cu/ccba/cear/issues/fall97/graphics/special/debary/debary.htm] The leaders who directed the efforts to change Chinese society after the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 were raised in the old society and had been marked with its values. PRC leaders sought to change some traditional aspects, such as rural land tenure, sexism, and Confucian education, while preserving others, such as the family structure. Some observers believe that the Communist period following 1949 is very much in continuity with traditional Chinese history, rather than revolutionary. On the other hand, some observers believe that the Communist period following 1949 has fundamentally altered or damaged the foundations of Chinese culture. At various times in the history of the PRC, many aspects of traditional Chinese culture were labeled 'regressive and harmful' or 'vestiges of feudalism' by the regime or by prominent movements (e.g. by the Red Guards during the Cultural Revolution), such as Confucianism, traditional art, literature, and performing arts; for example, Beijing opera was "reformed" to conform to communist propaganda. The brutality of the Cultural Revolution itself has also been described as destructive to China's traditional moral values. The institution of the Simplified Chinese orthography reform is controversial as well, with some considering it harmless, and others viewing it as an assault on Chinese culture. However, China has since moved away from attempting to reform all of its traditional art forms. As time has progressed, the PRC government has accepted much of traditional Chinese culture as an integral part of Chinese society; current Chinese national policy often lauds these as important achievements of the Chinese civilization and emphasizes them as being integral to the formation of Chinese national identity. The PRC has also promoted feelings of nationalism in recent years, regarded by some observers as an effort to provide legitimacy for its rule.

Science & Technology

Simplified Chinese] After the Sino-Soviet split, China started to develop its own indigenous nuclear deterrent and delivery systems. A natural outgrowth of this was a satellite launching program. This culminated in 1970 with the launching of Dong Fang Hong I, the first Chinese satellite. This made the PRC the fifth nation to independently launch a satellite. In 1992 the current "Project 921" manned spaceflight program was authorised. On 19 November 1999, the unmanned Shenzhou 1 was launched, the first test flight of the program. After three more tests, Shenzhou 5 was launched on October 15, 2003, using a Long March 2F rocket and carrying Yang Liwei, making the PRC the third country to put a human being into space through its own endeavors. The second mission, Shenzhou 6 launched 12 October 2005. Some see China's space program as a respond to the United States Air Force's efforts to militarize space. China is actively developing in fields such as biotechnology, biomedicine, information technology, urban infrastructure and electronics.

Miscellaneous topics

- China article on China's civilizations
- Chinese law and law of the People's Republic of China
- Communications in mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau
- Education in mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau
- National College Entrance Examination
- Environment of China
- Ethnic groups of China
- Police in the People's Republic of China
- Railways in China
- Science and technology in China
- Transportation in mainland China, Hong Kong, and Macau
- Military history of China
- China and weapons of mass destruction
- List of Chinese battles

References

- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ch.html CIA World Factbook 2002/2004]
- [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/18902.htm Background Note: China U.S. Department of State website]

External links

Government

- [http://www.china.org.cn/english/index.htm China.org.cn] China's Official Gateway
- [http://www.gov.cn www.gov.cn] China's Government Portal

News

- [http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/home/index.html China Daily]
- [http://www.chinaonline.com/ China Online]
- [http://english.eastday.com/ Eastday] Shanghai-based
- [http://www.HavenWorks.com/world/china HavenWorks - China News] news headline links
- [http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/ People's Daily Online]
- [http://www.scmp.com/ South China Morning Post] Hong Kong-based
- [http://202.84.17.11/en/index.htm Xinhua] government news agency
- [http://news.yahoo.com/fc/World/China Yahoo! News- Full Coverage: China] news headline links

Overviews

- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/country_profiles/1287798.stm BBC News - Country Profile: China]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/in_depth/asia_pacific/2004/china/default.stm BBC News - In Depth: Changing China] ongoing coverage
- [http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2005/eyeonchina/ CNN.com Specials - Eye on China] ongoing coverage
- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ch.html CIA World Factbook - China]
- [http://www.guardian.co.uk/china/0,7368,467721,00.html Guardian Unlimited - Special Report: China] ongoing coverage
- [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/cntoc.html Library of Congress - Country Study: China] data as of July 1987
- [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/red/ PBS Frontline - China in the Red] documentary covering 1998-2001
- [http://web.amnesty.org/report2004/chn-summary-eng Amnesty International Report 2004]

Directories

- [http://dmoz.org/Regional/Asia/China/ Open Directory Project - China] directory category
- [http://dir.yahoo.com/Regional/Countries/China/ Yahoo! - China] directory category
- [http://www.findouter.com/China/ China Findouter] directory category

Tourism

-
- [http://www.mondophoto.net/asia/china/china.html Mondophoto.net] - 4200 Public Domain photos of China
- [http://www.ianandwendy.com/OtherTrips/ChinaVietnamCambodia/China/?nosplash=true China Pictures] - Photos from a backpacker's trip through China

Other

- [http://www.seoultrain.com "Seoul Train" documentary] A critically acclaimed PBS documentary on North Korean refugees (Incite Productions)
- [http://chinadigitaltimes.net/ China Digital Times]
- [http://china.notspecial.org/ The Opposite End of China (Xinjiang, China Blog)]
- [http://www.ifex.org/en/content/view/full/147/ Censorship in China]
- [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=225 Chinese Threat to American Leadership in Space]
- [http://www.arachina.com/ China International Travel Service OF Guilin - JP ]
- [http://www.chinahistoryforum.com/ China History Forum]
- [http://www.chinaorbit.com ChinaOrbit.com] general information
- [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/06/12/international/asia/12CHIN.html?tntemail1 Chinese politics]: New York Times June 12, 2003 (login is required)
- [http://www.geocities.com/CapeCanaveral/Launchpad/1921/ Go Taikonauts!] Chinese citizen's page devoted to China's space program
- [http://www.cinaoggi.com/china-map/ Interactive Map of China]
- [http://www.space.com/missionlaunches/shenzhou_china_archive.html Space.com] articles on China's space activities
- [http://www.globalpolitician.com/articles.asp?ID=341 The Dragon's Dawn: China as a Rising Imperial Power] February 11, 2005
- [http://www.freedo

Nepal

The Kingdom of Nepal ( ) is a landlocked Himalayan country in South Asia, bordering the People's Republic of China to the north and India to the south, east and west. Nepal has the distinction of being the world's only Hindu state, with over eighty percent of the people following this faith. For a relatively small country, the Nepali landscape is uncommonly diverse, ranging from the humid Terai in the south to the lofty Himalayas in the north. Nepal boasts eight of the world's ten highest mountains, including Mount Everest on the border with China. Kathmandu is the capital and largest city. The exact origin of the name Nepal is uncertain, but the most popular understanding is that it is derived from Ne (holy) and pal (cave). After a long and rich history, during which the region has splintered and coalesced under a variety of absolute rulers, Nepal became a constitutional monarchy in 1990. This arrangement has been marked by increasing instability, both in the parliament and, since 1996, throughout large swathes of the country that have been fought over by Maoist insurgents . The Maoists have sought to overthrow the monarchy and establish their own form of republic; this has led to a civil war in which more than 12,000 people have died (see Nepalese civil war). On the pretext of quashing the insurgents, who now control about seventy percent of the country, the king unilaterally declared a "state of emergency" early in 2005, closing down the parliament and assuming all executive powers.

History

Neolithic tools found in the Kathmandu Valley indicate that people have been living in the Himalayan region for at least 9,000 years. It appears that people who were probably of Tibeto-Burman ethnicity lived in Nepal 2,500 years ago. Indo-Iranian / Aryan tribes entered the valley around 1500 BCE. Around 1000 BCE, small kingdoms and confederations of clans arose in the region. One of the princes of the Sakya confederation was Siddharta Gautama (563–483 BCE), who renounced his royalty to lead an ascetic life and came to be known as the Buddha ("the enlightened one"). By 250 BCE, the region came under the influence of the Mauryan empire of northern India, and later became a puppet state under the Gupta Dynasty in the fourth century CE. From the late fifth century CE, rulers called the Licchavis governed the area. The Licchavi dynasty went into decline in the late eighth century and was followed by a Newari era, from 879, although the extent of their control over the entire country is uncertain. By the late 11th century, southern Nepal came under the influence of the Chalukaya Empire of southern India. Under the Chalukayas, Nepal's religious establishment changed as the kings patronised Hinduism instead of the prevailing Buddhism. southern IndiaBy the early 12th century, leaders were emerging whose names ended with the Sanskrit suffix malla ("wrestler"). Initially their reign was marked by upheaval before the kings consolidated their power over the next 200 years. By the late 14th century much of the country began to come under a unified rule. This unity was short-lived: in 1482 the kingdom was carved into three: Kathmandu, Patan, and Bhadgaon. Bhadgaon After centuries of petty rivalry between the three kingdoms, in the mid-18th century Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkha ruler set out to unify the kingdoms. After seeking arms and aid from India, and buying the neutrality of bordering Indian kingdoms, he embarked on his mission in 1765. After several bloody battles and sieges, he managed to unify Nepal three years later in 1768. This event marked the birth of the modern nation of Nepal. A dispute and subsequently war with Tibet over the control of mountain passes forced the Nepalese to retreat and pay heavy repatriations. Rivalry between Nepal and the British East India Company over the annexation of minor states bordering Nepal eventually led to the Anglo-Nepalese War (1815–16), in which Nepal suffered a complete rout. The Treaty of Sugauli was signed ceding parts of the Terrai and Sikkim to the Company in exchange for Nepalese autonomy. Factionalism among the royal family led to a period of instability after the war. In 1846, a discovered plot to overthrow Jang Bahadur, a fast-rising military leader by the reigning queen, led to the Kot Massacre. Armed clashes between military personnel and administrators loyal to the queen led to the execution of several hundred princes and chieftains around the country. Bahadur emerged victorious and founded the Rana lineage. The king was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British, and assisted the British during the Sepoy Rebellion in 1857, and later in both World Wars. In 1923 the United Kingdom and Nepal formally signed an agreement of friendship, in which Nepal's independence was recognised by the UK. 1923 In the late 1940s, newly emerging pro-democracy movements and political parties in Nepal were critical of the Rana autocracy. Meanwhile, with the annexation of Tibet by the Chinese in 1950, India faced the prospect of an expansive military and was thus keen to avoid instability in Nepal. Forced to act, India sponsored both King Tribhuvan as Nepal's new ruler in 1951, and a new government, mostly comprising the Nepali Congress Party. After years of power wrangling between the king and the government, the democratic experiment was dissolved in 1959, that a "partyless" panchayat system was made to govern Nepal until 1989, when the "Jan Andolan" (People's) Movement forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and to establish a multiparty parliament in May 1991. In 1996, the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) started a bid to replace the parliamentary system with a socialist republic. This has led to the Nepal Civil War with more than 12,000 deaths. On June 1, 2001, the Heir Apparent Crown Prince Dipendra went on a killing spree in the royal palace, a violent response to his parents' refusal to accept his choice of wife. Following the carnage, the throne was inherited by Birendra's brother Gyanendra. In the face of unstable governments and a Maoist siege on the Kathmandu Valley in August 2004, popular support for the monarchy began to wane. On 2005-02-01, Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and assumed full executive powers to quash the Maoist movement. In September 2005, the Maoists declared a three-month unilateral ceasefire. A few weeks later, the government stated that parliamentary elections would be held by 2007.

Geography

2007 Nepal is of roughly rectangular shape, 850 km wide and 200 km broad, with an area of 147,181 km². Although Nepal shares no boundary with Bangladesh, the two countries are separated by a narrow strip of land about 24 km wide, known as the Chicken's Neck. Efforts are underway to try and make this area a free-trade zone. Nepal is commonly divided into three physiographic areas—the Mountain, Hill, and Terai Regions. These ecological belts run east–west and are bisected by Nepal's major river systems. Terai Region The Terai Plains, bordering India are part of the northern rim of the Indo-Gangetic plains, were formed and are fed by three major rivers: the Koshi, the Narayani (India's Gandak River), and the Karnali. This region has a hot, humid climate. The Hill Region (Pahar in Nepali) abuts the mountains and varies between 1,000 and 4,000 m in altitude. Two low mountain ranges, the Mahabharat Lekh and Shiwalik Range (also known as the Churia Range) dominate the region. The hilly belt includes the Kathmandu Valley, the country's most fertile and urbanised area. Despite its geographical isolation and limited economic potential, the region always has been the political and cultural centre of Nepal. Unlike the heavily populated valleys, elevations above 2,500 m are sparsely populated. The Mountain Region is contiguous with the Hill Region and contains the highest region in the world. The world's highest mountain, Mount Everest (Sagarmatha in Nepali) 8,850 m is located on the border with China. Eight of the top ten highest mountains in the world are located in Nepal. Kanchenjunga, the world's third highest peak is also located on its eastern border with Sikkim. Deforestation is a major problem in all regions, with resulting erosion and degradation of ecosystems. Nepal has five climatic zones, broadly corresponding to altitude. The tropical and subtropical zones lie below 1,200 m, the temperate zone between 1,200 and 2,400 m; the cold zone between 2,400 m and 3,600 m; the subarctic climatic zone between 3,600 and 4,400 m, and the arctic zone above 4,400 m. Nepal experiences five seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. The Himalaya blocks the cold winds from Central Asia in winter, and forms the northern limit of the monsoon wind patterns.

Economy

Central Asia Nepal is one of the poorest and least developed nations in the world; up to half of its people live below the poverty line. Agriculture provides a livelihood for some 80% of the population and accounts for about 40% of the GDP, With services comprising 40% and industrial output the remainder. Terrain that ranges from hilly to mountainous in the northern two-thirds of the country has made the building of roads and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. There are just over 4,000 km of paved roads, and one 59 km railway line in the south of the country. Aviation is in a better state, with 46 airports, nine of them with paved runways. There is fewer than one telephone for each 46 people; landline services are poor, although mobile telephony in a reasonable state in some parts of the country. There are around 100,000 Internet connections, but after the imposition of the "state of emergency", intermittent losses of service have been reported. A lack of natural resources, its landlocked location, technological backwardness and the long-running civil war have also prevented Nepal from fully developing its economy. The country receives foreign aid from India, China, the United States, Japan and the European Union. The government's budget is about US$665 million, with expenditures of $1.1bn. The inflation rate has dropped to 2.9% after a period of higher inflation during the 1990s. The Nepalese Rupee has been tied to the Indian Rupee at an exchange rate of 1.6 for many years. Since the loosening of exchange rate controls in the early 1990s, the black market for foreign exchange has all but disappeared. A long-standing economic agreement between Nepal and India underpins a close relationship between the two economies. Indian Rupee The distribution of wealth among the people is consistent with that in many developed and developing countries: the highest 10% of households receive nearly 30% of the national income, and the lowest 10% a little more than a tenth of that. Nepal's workforce of about 10 million suffers from a severe shortage of skilled labour. By sector, agriculture employs 81% of the workforce, services 16% and manufacturing/craft-based industry 3%. Agricultural produce—mostly grown in the Terrai region bordering India—includes rice, corn, wheat, sugarcane, root crops, milk, and water buffalo meat. Industrial activity mainly involves the processing of agricultural produce, including jute, sugarcane, tobacco, and grain. The spectacular landscape and deep, exotic culture of Nepal represents considerable potential for tourism, but growth in this export industry has been stifled by recent political events. The rate of unemployment and underemployment approaches half of the working-age population. A lack of employment prospects has encouraged many Nepalese to move to India in search of work. Poverty is acute and many of Nepal's women are sold to Indian brothels, a figure as high as 7,000 each year. Nepal receives US$50 million a year through the Gurkha soldiers who serve in the Indian and British armies and are highly esteemed for their skill and bravery. Nepal's GDP for the year 2005 is estimated to be just over US$37bn (adjusted to Purchasing Power Parity), making it the 83rd largest economy in the world. Per capita income is around US$1,402, ranked 163rd. Nepal's exports of mainly carpets, clothing, leather goods, jute goods, grain total $568 million. Imports commodities of mainly gold, machinery and equipment, petroleum products and fertiliser total US$1.419 bn. India (48.8%), the US (22.3%), and Germany (8.5%) are its main export partners. Nepal's import partners include India (43%), the United Arab Emirates (10%), China (10%), Saudi Arabia (4.4%), and Singapore (4%).

Government and politics

Singapore Until 1990, Nepal was an absolute monarchy under the executive control of the king. In 1990, King Birendra agreed to large-scale political reforms by creating a parliamentary monarchy with the king as head of state and a prime minister as head of government. Nepal's legislature is bicameral constituting of a House of Representatives and a National Council. The House of Representatives consists of 205 members directly elected by the people. The National Council has 60 members, 10 nominated by the king, 35 elected by the House of Representatives and the remaining 15 elected by an electoral college made up of chairs of villages and towns. The legislature has a five-year term, but can be dissolved by the king before its term ends. All males and females 18 years and older may vote. The executive comprises the King and the Council of Ministers (the Cabinet). The leader of the coalition or party securing the maximum seats in an election is appointed as the Prime Minister. The Cabinet is appointed by the king on the recommendation of the Prime Minister. The judiciary is made of the Sarbochha Adalat—the Supreme Court, appellate courts and various district courts. The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court is appointed by the monarch on recommendation of the Constitutional Council; the other judges are appointed by the monarch on the recommendation of the Judicial Council. The Nepali Congress Party (NCP), established in the 1940s, is the oldest party in Nepal. Other major parties are the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) (CPN-UML), the pro-royalist National Democratic Party (NDP) and the Communist Party of Nepal (Marxist-Leninist) (CPN-ML), a faction of the CPN-UML. Governments in Nepal have tended to be highly unstable; no government has survived for more than two years, either through internal collapse or parliamentary dissolution by the monarch. In 2005, Prime Minister Sher Bahadur Deuba and other ministers were placed under house arrest, and King Gyanendra dissolved the parliament and declared a "state of emergency" which lasted till April. In August 2005 Deuba was jailed after a Royal Commission found him guilty of corruption. According to a statement by Nepalese government in September 2005, parliamentary elections are to be held within the next two years. August 2005

Military and foreign affairs

:Main articles: Military of Nepal, Foreign relations of Nepal Foreign relations of Nepal Nepal's military consists of the Royal Nepalese Army which includes the Royal Nepalese Army Air Service, (the air force unit under it), and the Nepalese Police Force. Service is voluntary and the minimum age for enlistment is 18 years. Nepal spends $99.2 million (2004) on its military—1.5% of its GDP. The king is the commander-in-chief of the military, which is currently engaged in the civil war against the Maoist insurgents. Most of the equipment and arms are supplied by The Republic of India. Nepal has close ties with both of its neighbours, India and China. In accordance with a long standing treaty, Indian and Nepalese citizens may travel to each others' countries without a passport or visa. Nepalese citizens may work in India without legal restriction. Although Nepal and India typically have close ties, from time to time Nepal becomes caught up in the problematic Sino-Indian relationship. India considers Nepal as part of its realm of influence, and views Chinese aid with concern. Some Indians consider Nepal to be part of a greater pan-Indian state, an attitude that has caused Nepalese antagonism towards India. In 2005, after King Gyanendra took over, Nepalese relations with India, the US, and the UK have worsened. These three foreign countries have been vociferous opponents to the crackdown on civil liberties in Nepal. China mainly seeks cooperation with Nepal on the issues of Tibet.

Subdivisions

Nepal is divided into 14 zones and 75 districts grouped into five development zones. Each district is headed by a chief district officer responsible for maintaining law and order and coordinating the work of field agencies of the various government ministries. Divisions: # Far Western: Mahakali (9), Sethi (14) # Mid Western: Karnali (6) Bheri (2), Rapti (12) # Western: Dhawalagiri (3), Gandaki (4), Lumbini (8) # Central: Bagmati (1), Janakpur (5), Narayani (11) # Eastern: Sagarmatha (13), Kosi (7), Mechi (10)

Demographics

districts Nepal has a total population of 27,676,547 as of July 2005, with a growth rate of 2.2%. 39% of the population is up to 14 years old, 57.3% are aged between 15 and 64, and 3.7% above 65. The median age is 20.07 (19.91 for males and 20.24 for females). There are 1,060 males for every 1,000 females. Life expectancy is 59.8 years (60.9 for males and 59.5 for females). Total literacy rate is 45.2% (62.7% for males and 27.6% for females). The largest ethnic group is the Chhettri (15.5%). Other groups are the Brahman-Hill 12.5%, Magar 7%, Tharu 6.6%, Tamang 5.5%, Newar 5.4%, Muslim 4.2%, Kami 3.9%, Yadav 3.9%, other 32.7%, unspecified 2.8%. According to the 2001 census, Hindus constitute 80.6% of the population. Buddhists make up 10.7%, Muslims 4.2%, Kirant 3.6%, other religions 0.9%. Nepali is the national language with 47.8% of the population speaking it as their first language. Other languages include 12.1%, Bhojpuri 7.4%, Tharu (Dagaura/Rana) 5.8%, Tamang 5.1%, Newar 3.6%, Magar 3.3%, Awadhi 2.4%, other 10%, unspecified 2.5%. Differences between Hindus and Buddhists have been in general very subtle and academic in nature due to the intermingling of Hindu and Buddhist beliefs. Both share common temples and worship common deities and many of Nepal's Hindus could also be regarded as Buddhists. Buddhists are mostly concentrated in the eastern regions and the central Terrai. Buddhism was relatively more common among the Newar and Tibeto-Nepalese groups. Among the Tibeto-Nepalese, those most influenced by Hinduism were the Magar, Sunwar, and Rai peoples. Hindu influence is less prominent among the Gurung, Limbu, Bhutia, and Thakali groups, who employ Buddhist monks for their religious ceremonies. Hinduism is the official religion of the country, making it the only officially Hindu nation. The northern mountains are sparsely populated. A majority of the population live in the central highlands despite the migration of a significant section of the population to the fertile Terrai belt in recent years. Kathmandu, with a population of 80,000, is the largest city in the country.

Culture

Thakali Culture to the south and Tibetan to the north. Similarities can be observed in the clothing, way of life, language and food. A typical Nepalese meal is dal-bhat, boiled lentils served with rice and usually vegetables. This is consumed twice daily, once in the morning and again after sunset. Between these main meals, snacks such as chiura (beaten rice) and tea are consumed. Meat, eggs, and fish are also consumed, particularly in the mountainous regions, where the diet tends to be richer in protein. Millet-based alcoholic drinks are popular, including jaad and the distilled rakshi. Folklore is an integral part of Nepalese society. Traditional stories are rooted in the reality of day-to-day life—tales of love, affection, battles, and demons and ghosts; they reflect and explain local lifestyles, cultures and belief systems. Many Nepalese folktales are enacted in dance and music. The Newar people are well-known for masked dances that tell stories of the gods and heroes. Music is percussion-based, sometimes with flutes or shawm accompanying the intense, nasal vocal lines. Musical styles are a variety of pop, religious and folk music, among other styles. Musical genres from Tibet and India have had a strong influence on traditional Nepalese music. Women, even of the musician castes, are less likely than men to play music, except in specific situations such as traditional all-female wedding parties. Musical genreThe sarangi, a four-stringed, hand-carved instrument is usually played by wandering minstrels. In recent times, Nepali rock or rock music, sung to Nepali lyrics, has become popular among youth. Soccer is the most popular sport, followed by cricket and kabaddi. The Martyrs Soccer League is the national soccer championship. There is one television service, although many networks, particularly those that originate in India, are available with the installation of increasingly popular satellite dishes. Lack of electrification makes this difficult. Radio is listened to throughout the kingdom; as of 2000, there were 12 radio stations. The Nepali year begins in mid-April and is divided into 12 months. Saturday is the official weekly holiday. Main holidays include the National Day (birthday of the king) December 28, Prithvi Jayanti, (January 11), and Martyr's Day (February 18) and a mix of Hindu and Buddhist festivals such as Dashai in autumn, and Tihar late autumn. Most marriages are arranged, and divorce is rare. Polygamy is banned by law; relatively isolated tribes in the north, such as the Dolpo, practise polyandry. Nepal has a rich tradition of ceremonies, such as nwaran (the christening of a child), and the Pasni, the day a child is first fed rice, and bratabandha (the penance ceremony) and gupha for prepubescent boys and girls, respectively. In bel baha, preadolescent girls are "married" to the bel fruit tree, ensuring that the girl becomes and remains fertile. Most houses in rural Nepal are made up of a tight bamboo framework with mud and cow-dung walls. These dwellings remain cool in summers and retain warmth in winters. Dwellings at higher altitudes are mostly timber based.

External links

- [http://www.nepalhmg.gov.np His Majesty's Government of Nepal]
- [http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/nptoc.html Library of Congress – Nepal]
-
- [http://www.india-defence.com/browse/nepal/0 Latest news reports, analysis and intelligence about Nepal] on India Defence
- [http://www.nepalmonarchy.gov.np/english.php Official Site of the Royal Court of Nepal]
- [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5283.htm United States Department of State Profile of Nepal]
- [http://www.nepalonline.net/nepalimd99/ Nepal Institutional Manpower Directory]

Notes

# [http://www.uri.edu/artsci/wms/hughes/nepal.htm Nepal] # [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GB24Df04.html Asia Times Online]

References

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- Michael Hutt, ed., Himalayan 'people's war' : Nepal's Maoist rebellion, London : C. Hurst, 2004
-
-
-
-
-
-
- Category:Monarchies Category:SAARC members Category:Landlocked countries zh-min-nan:Nepal ko:네팔 ms:Nepal ja:ネパール simple:Nepal th:ประเทศเนปาล

Bhutan

The Kingdom of Bhutan ( ) is a landlocked South Asian nation situated between India and China.The landscape ranges from the subtropical plains to the Himalayan heights, an elevation gain of more than 7000 m. Its economy is based on subsistence agriculture (emphasizing corn and rice) and animal husbandry. Small, terraced farms predominate. Forestry, hydroelectricity, cash crops, tourism, and development aid (the latter mostly from India) are also significant. Population estimates range from 750,000, to 2.23 million. Thimphu is the capital and largest town. Bhutan is one of the most isolated nations in the world; foreign influences and tourism are heavily regulated by the government to preserve its traditional Buddhist based culture. Most Bhutanese are Buddhists and adhere to either the Drukpa Kagyu or the Nyingmapa school of of Tibetan Buddhism . The official language is Dzongkha (lit. "the language of the dzong"). Bhutan is ussually depicted as the last surviving refuge of traditional Himalayan Buddhist culture in most of the literature on the country. There have been allegations of human rights abuses with regard to the treatment of minority ethnic Nepali population, who are primarily Hindu. Bhutan has been a monarchy since 1907, The different dzongkhags were united under the leadership Trongsa Penlop. The current king, Jigme Singye Wangchuk, has made some moves toward constitutional government. In 1999, Bhutan began allowing television (mostly Star TV, a cable channel). Many Bhutanese now blame TV for what they see as a swift rise in crime, materialism, and nontraditional values. (See [http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,975769,00.html this article] in The Guardian)

The Name

The origins of the name Bhutan are unclear; historians have suggested that it may have originated in variations of the Sanskrit words Bhota-ant (the end of Bhot – another word for Tibet), or Bhu-uttan (highlands). The word Bhutan as a name for the country dates from the late 19th century. The Dzongkha (and Tibetan) name for the country is Druk Yul ("Dragon Country"). Historically, Bhutan was known by many names, such as Lho Mon (Southern Land of Darkness), Lho Tsendenjong (Southern Land of the Sandalwood), and Lhomen Khazhi (Southern Land of Four Approaches).

History

Stone tools, weapons, and remnants of large stone structures provide evidence that Bhutan was inhabited as early as 2000 BC. Historians have theorised that the state of Lhomon (literally, "southern darkness"), or Monyul ("Dark Land", a reference to the Monpa – the aboriginal peoples of Bhutan) may have existed between 500 BC and 600 AD. The names Lhomon Tsendenjong (Sandalwood Country), and Lhomon Khashi, or Southern Mon (country of four approaches) have been found in ancient Bhutanese and Tibetan chronicles. The earliest transcribed event in Bhutan was the passage of the Buddhist saint Padmasambhava (also called Guru Rinpoche) in the 8th century. Bhutan's early history is unclear, because most of the records were destroyed after fire ravaged Punakha, the ancient capital in 1827. By the tenth century, Bhutan's political development was heavily influenced by its religious history. Various sub-sects of Buddhism emerged which were patronised by the various Mongol and Tibetan overlords. After the decline of the Mongols in the 14th century, these sub-sects vied with each other for supremacy in the political and religious landscape, eventually leading to the ascendancy of the Drukpa sub-sect by the sixteenth century. Punakha Until the early 17th century, Bhutan existed as a patchwork of minor warring fiefdoms until unified by the Tibetan lama and military leader Shabdrung Ngawang Namgyal. To defend the country against intermittent Tibetan forays, Namgyal built a network of impregnable dzong (fortresses), and promulgated a code of law that helped to bring local lords under centralised control. Many such dzong still exist. After his death in 1652, Bhutan fell under a state of anarchy. Taking advantage of the chaos, the Tibetans attacked Bhutan in 1710, and again in 1730 with the help of the Mongols. Both assaults were successfully thwarted, and an armistice was signed in 1759. armistice In the 18th century, the Bhutanese invaded and occupied the kingdom of Cooch Behar to the south. In 1772, Cooch Behar appealed to the British East India Company who assisted them in ousting the Bhutanese, and later attacking Bhutan itself in 1774. A peace treaty was signed in which Bhutan agreed to retreat to its pre-1730 borders. However, the peace was tenuous, and border skirmishes with the British were to continue for the next hundred years. The skirmishes eventually led to the Duar War (1864–1865), a confrontation over who would control the Bengal Duars. After Bhutan lost the war, the Treaty of Sinchula was signed between British India and Bhutan. As part of the reparations, the Duars were ceded to Britain in exchange for a rent of Rs. 50,000. The treaty ended all hostilities between British India and Bhutan. During the 1870s, power struggles between the rival valleys of Paro and Trongsa led to civil war in Bhutan, eventually leading to the ascendancy of Ugyen Wangchuck, the ponlop (governor) of Tongsa. From his power base in central Bhutan, Ugyen Wangchuck defeated his political enemies and united the country following several civil wars and rebellions in the period 1882–1885. In 1907, an epochal year for the country, Ugyen Wangchuck was unanimously chosen as the hereditary king of the country by an assembly of leading Buddhist monks, government officials, and heads of important families. The British government promptly recognised the new monarchy, and in 1910 Bhutan came under the suzerainty of the British crown in exchange for political autonomy. After India gained independence from Britain in August 1947, kingdoms such as Bhutan were given the option to remain independent or to join the Indian Union. Bhutan chose to remain independent, and on August 8, 1949, Bhutan's independence was recognised by India. After the People's Liberation Army entered Tibet in 1951, Bhutan sealed its northern frontier and improved bilateral ties with India. To reduce the risk of Chinese encroachment, Bhutan began a modernisation program that was largely sponsored by India. In 1953, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck established the country's legislature – a 130-member National Assembly – to promote a more democratic form of governance. In 1965, he set up a Royal Advisory Council, and in 1968 he formed a Cabinet. In 1971, Bhutan was admitted to the United Nations, having held observer status for three years. In July 1972, Jigme Singye Wangchuck ascended to the throne at the age of 16 after the death of his father, Dorji Wangchuck. Jigme Singye Wangchuck Government decrees promulgated in the 1980s sought to preserve Bhutan's cultural identity in a "one nation, one people" policy called driglam namzha (national customs and etiquette). For example, a Bhutanese-derived national dress is required of all Bhutanese, even of the recent immigrants from Nepal. Nepali-language education has also been restricted on grounds of national unity. Such policies continue to be severely criticized by human rights groups as well as Bhutan's Nepalese economic migrant community, who perceive the policy to be directed against them. From the perspective of Bhutanese, the issue is one of preserving a Himalayan Buddhist culture and way of life (which is under threat in nearby Sikkim and Tibet). To the Nepalese immigrants, the Bhutanse are clinging to power at the expense of human rights, pluralism, and democratic principles. Simmering tensions between ethnic Nepali and Bhutanese communities were exacerbated in the late 1980s after the government moved to implement the 1985 Citizenship Act, which provided that only those Nepalese immigrants who could show they had resided in Bhutan since 1958, as proved by being able to show documents prior to 1958, be deemed the citizens of Bhutan. This led to the setting up of numerous organisations to protest against what was seen as an injustice against resident Nepalis. Matters reached a head in 1991 after protests by the Nepali community led to violence, leaving 300 dead and 2,000 under arrest. After protests by the government of Nepal, the Bhutanese government released most of those arrested. However, the issue of expatriate Nepalis remains unresolved, with at least 100,000 living in UNHCR camps in Nepal and Sikkim. In 1998, King Jigme Singye Wangchuck introduced significant political reforms, transferring most of his powers to the Prime Minister and allowing for impeachment of the King by a two-thirds majority of the National Assembly. In late 2003, the Bhutanese army launched a large-scale operation to flush out anti-India insurgents who were operating training camps in southern Bhutan. A new constitution is likely to be put up for ratification by a referendum at the end of 2005.

Geography

referendum The northern region consists of an arc of glaciated mountain peaks with an extremely cold climate at the highest elevations. Most peaks in the north are over 7,000 m above sea level; the highest point is the Kula Kangri, at 7,553 m, and Gangkhar Puensum, at 7,541 m, has the distinction of being the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. Watered by snow-fed rivers, alpine valleys in this region provide pasturage for livestock, tended by a sparse population of migratory shepherds. The Black Mountains in central Bhutan form a watershed between two major river systems: the Mo Chhu and the Drangme Chhu. Peaks in the Black Mountains range between 1,500 m and 2,700 m above sea level, and fast-flowing rivers have carved out deep gorges in the lower mountain areas. Woodlands of the central region provide most of Bhutan's forest production. The Torsa, Raidak, Sankosh, and Manas are the main rivers of Bhutan, flowing through this region. Most of the population lives in the central highlands. Manas In the south, the Shiwalik Hills are covered with dense, deciduous forests, alluvial lowland river valleys, and mountains up to around 1,500 m above sea level. The foothills descend into the subtropical Duars plain. Most of the Duars is located in India, although a 10–15 km wide strip extends into Bhutan. The Bhutan Duars is divided into two parts: the northern and the southern Duars. The northern Duars which abuts the Himalayan foothills has rugged, sloping terrain and dry, porous soil with dense vegetation and abundant wildlife. The southern Duars has moderately fertile soil, heavy savannah grass, dense, mixed jungle, and freshwater springs. Mountain rivers, fed by either the melting snow or the monsoon rains, empty into the Brahmaputra river in India. Over 70% of Bhutan is forested. The climate in Bhutan varies with altitude, from subtropical in the south to temperate in the highlands and polar-type climate, with year-round snow in the north. Bhutan experiences five distinct seasons: summer, monsoon, autumn, winter and spring. Western Bhutan has the heavier monsoon rains; southern Bhutan has hot humid summers and cool winters; central and eastern Bhutan is temperate and drier than the west with warm summers and cool winters.

Economy

spring Bhutan's economy is one of the world's smallest and least developed, and is based on agriculture, forestry, and the sale of hydroelectric power to India. Agriculture provides the main livelihood for more than 90% of the population. Agrarian practices consist largely of subsistence farming and animal husbandry. Handicrafts are a small cottage industry and a source of income for many. Sculpting of religious figurines is a popular occupation, and gilded Buddha statues and Buddhist saints are sold to tourists. A landscape that varies from hilly to ruggedly mountainous has made the building of roads, and other infrastructure difficult and expensive. This, and a lack of access to the sea, has meant that Bhutan has never been able to benefit from significant trading of its produce. Bhutan currently does not have a railway system, though the Indian Railways plans to link up southern Bhutan with its vast network under an agreement signed in January 2005. Historically, there have been well patronised trading routes from the Tibetan plateau to the Indian subcontinent through Bhutan, but haulage has been limited to human porters and livestock. The industrial sector is minimal, production being of the cottage-industry type. Most development projects, such as road construction, rely on Indian contract labour. Agricultural produce includes rice, corn, root crops, citrus, food grains, dairy products and eggs. Industries include cement, wood products, processed fruits, alcoholic beverages and calcium carbide. Bhutan's currency, the ngultrum, is pegged to the Indian Rupee. The rupee is also accepted as legal tender in the country. Incomes of over Nu 100,000 per annum are taxed, but very few wage and salary earners qualify. Bhutan's inflation rate was estimated at about 3% in 2003. Bhutan has a Gross Domestic Product of around USD 2,913 million (adjusted to Purchasing Power Parity), making it the 162nd largest economy in the world. Per capita income is around $1,400 (€1,170), ranked 124th. Government revenues total €122 million ($146 million), though expenditures amount to €127 million ($152 million). 60% of the budget expenditure, however, is financed by India's Ministry of External Affairs. Bhutan's exports of mainly electricity, cardamom, gypsum, timber, handicrafts, cement, fruit, precious stones and spices total €128 million ($154 million) (2000 est.). Imports, however, total €164 million ($196 million), leading to a trade deficit. Main items imported include fuel and lubricants, grain, machinery, vehicles, fabrics and rice. Bhutan's main export partner is India, exporting 87.9% of its goods to that country. Bangladesh (4.6%) and the Philippines (2%) are the other two top exporting partners. As its border with Tibet is closed, trade between Bhutan and China is now almost non-existent. Bhutan's import partners include India (71.3%), Japan (7.8%) and Austria (3%). In a response to accusations in 1987 by a journalist from UK's Financial Times that the pace of development in Bhutan was slow, the King said that "Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross National Product." This statement appears to have presaged recent findings by western economic psychologists, including 2002 Nobel Laureate Daniel Kahneman, that questions the link between levels of income and happiness. It signalled his commitment to building an economy that is appropriate for Bhutan's unique culture, based on Buddhist spiritual values, and has served as a unifying vision for the economy.

Government and politics

Daniel Kahneman The question of whether Bhutan is a sovereign country is a difficult one. Bhutan was treated as a suzerainty by the British Raj, which set up a monarchy and allowed it to administer Bhutan's internal affairs. Foreign and defense policy, however, was decided by the British. In 1949, after Indian independence, Bhutan and India agreed to a ten-article, perpetual treaty which effectively continued the relationship, but with India taking the place of Britain as the imperial power. That is, India agreed not to interfere in Bhutan's internal relations, while Bhutan agreed "to be guided by the advice of the Government of India in regard to its external relations" (Article 2). The treaty also established free trade and full extradition between the two countries. (In 1972 India additionally granted Bhutan the right to export goods through its territory to third countries duty-free.) However, shortly after entering the United Nations in 1971, the Bhutanese government defied India by recognizing Bangladesh. In 1974 Bhutan's foreign minister argued that the Indian "guidance" mentioned in the 1949 treaty did not necessarily entail Bhutan's obedience. Since then Bhutan has regularly conducted international affairs independently of India. Bhutan's head of state is the Druk Gyalpo ("Dragon King"), presently Jigme Singye Wangchuck. Although his title is hereditary, he can be removed by a two-thirds majority vote by the parliament, the unicameral National Assembly, or Tshogdu. The 154-seat National Assembly is composed of locally elected town representatives (105), religious representatives (12), and members nominated by the king (37), all of whom serve a three-year term. Suffrage in Bhutan is unique in that each family-unit, rather than individual, has one vote. In 1998, the monarch's executive powers were transferred to the council of ministers, or cabinet (Lhengye Shungtsog). Candidates for the council of ministers are elected by the National Assembly for a fixed, five-year term, and must be a part of the legislative assembly. The cabinet is headed by the Prime Minister, who is the head of government. The post of Prime Minister rotates each year between the five candidates who secured the highest number of votes. Recently, a new constitution that includes provision for a two-party democratic system was unveiled after four years of preparation. This constitution is likely to be put to the people in a referendum at the end of 2005; at the behest of the monarch, the referendum proposes a significant reduction in his powers. In Bhutan's judicial system, the monarch is the final court of appeal (the "Supreme Court of Appeal"). The Royal High Court of Bhutan is the highest court in the country. The Royal High Court has original jurisdiction over the 20 districts of the nation. Bhutan's legal system is superficially based on Indian law and English common law, but is in fact largely informal. Judicial appointments are made by the monarch, and may be recalled by him at any time. Bhutan criminalizes "anti-national" activity, including such things as criticism of the king, or association with exile activists. Bhutan has been accused of torture, arbitrary arrest, and similar human rights violations. Although there are has been no proof, dissidents have alleged that their families were targeted. Political parties are currently allowed to form however a two party system should develop once the new constitution is ratified. There are few groups based in Nepal claiming to have exiled by Bhutanese government. One such group comprised mostly of deported ethnic Nepali immigrants, is the [http://ahurabht.tripod.com/draft8_3.html United Front for Democracy].

Districts

For administrative purposes, Bhutan is divided into four dzongdey (administrative zones). Each dzongdey is further divided into dzongkhag (districts). There are 20 dzongkhag in Bhutan. Large dzongkhags are further divided into subdistricts known as dungkhag. At the basic level, groups of villages form a constituency called gewog and is administered by gup, who is elected by the people. dungkhag

Military and foreign affairs

:Main articles: Military of Bhutan, Foreign relations of Bhutan The Royal Bhutan Army is Bhutan's military service. It includes the Royal Bodyguard and the Royal Bhutan Police. Membership is voluntary, and the minimum age for recruitment is 18. The standing army numbers about 6,000 and is trained by the Indian Army. It has an annual budget of about US$13.7 million—1.8% of the GDP. India handles most of Bhutan's foreign affairs by way of conducting formal communications to and from other countries as Bhutan has a shortage of diplomatic personnel. Bhutan has diplomatic relations with 22 countries, including the European Union, with missions in India, Bangladesh, Thailand and Kuwait. It has two UN missions, one in New York and one in Geneva. Only India and Bangladesh have residential embassies in Bhutan, while Thailand has consulate office in Bhutan. By a longstanding treaty, Indian and Bhutanese citizens may travel to each other's countries without a passport or visa. Bhutanese citizens may also work in India without legal restriction. Bhutan does not have formal diplomatic ties with its northern neighbour, China, although exchanges of visits at various levels between the two have significantly increased in the recent past. Bhutan’s border with China is largely undemarcated and thus disputed in some places.

Demographics

visa The population of Bhutan, once estimated at several million, has now been officially downgraded--by the Bhutanese government itself--to 750,000, after a census in the early nineties. Some Nepali activists claim that the downgrade was motivated by a desire to minimize the proportion of immigrant ethnic Nepali population. However most believe that the population was artifically inflated in seventies because of an earlier perception that nations with populations of less than a million would not be admitted to the United Nations (as Bhutan was in 1971). The population density, 45 per square kilometer, disguises the fact that most of Bhutan's land is unusable under present economic conditions. Bhutan's population is concentrated in the towns, in the southern plains, and in valleys where agriculture is feasible. Over half of the people live in the central highlands of Bhutan, and 40 percent live in the southern plains bordering India. The remaining 10 percent are dispersed in the northern mountains and in the eastern tracts. Ninety-two percent of the population live in rural settlements. The largest town is the capital, Thimpu, which has a population of 50,000. Among the Bhutanese people, several principal ethnic groups may be distinguished. The dominant group are the Ngalongs, a Buddhist group based in the western part of the country. Their culture is closely related to that of Tibet. Much the same could be said of the Sharchops ("Easterners"), who are associated with the eastern part of Bhutan (but who traditionally follow the Nyingmapa rather than the official Drukpa Kagyu form of Tibetan Buddhism). These two groups together are called Bhutanese. The remainder of the population consist of ethnic Nepalese, most of whom are Hindu (with a small Muslim minority). The numbers, and relative proportions, of these three groups are a matter of intense political controversy. Refugee activists have claimed the Nepalese population to be as much as 53 %, i.e. a majority; and the Ngalong population to be 16 %. On the other hand, Bhutan's official figures give the Nepali population as 25 %, and the Ngalong population as 28 %. (For a discussion of these issues, see [http://www.bhootan.org/thronson/thronson_demographic.htm this article] on Bhutanese demographics.) Government efforts to institute policies designed to preserve the country's unique culture, and to control illegal immigration led to tighter enforcement of citizenship requirements. This in turn resulted in political protests, threats to the government workers, and kidnapping, being carried by a group comprised of ethnic Nepalis with some ties to the Gurkha National Liberation Front. Inspite of the government's assurance they would not be kicked out, tens of thousands of ethnic Nepalese left the country in 1991-92, while a few of were deported forcibly. According to the U.N. High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), as of mid-June 2000, 98,269 ethnic Nepalese remained in 7 refugee camps in eastern Nepal; upwards of 15,000 reside outside of the camps in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal. The Government maintains that some of those in the camps never were citizens, and therefore have no right to return. In 1998 the Government began resettling ethnic Bhutanese from other regions of the country on land in southern districts vacated by the ethnic Nepalese living in refugee camps in Nepal, which is likely to complicate any future return of the ethnic Nepalese. The national language is Dzongkha, one of 53 languages in the Tibetan language family. The script, here called Chhokey ("Dharma Language"), is identical with the Tibetan script. The government classifies 19 related Tibetan languages as dialects of Dzongkha. Lepcha is spoken in parts of western Bhutan; Tshangla, a close relative of Dzongkha, is widely spoken in the eastern parts. The Nepali language is widely spoken in the south (though the government forbids its being taught as a second language). Ethnologue lists 24 languages currently spoken in Bhutan, all of them in the Tibeto-Burman family except Nepali, an Indo-Iranian language. The Himalayan Languages Project recognizes two, and possibly three, of Bhutan's Tibeto-Burman languages to be each the last remnants of their own language sub-families - Gongduk, Olekha or "Black Mountain", and possibly Lhokpu. The languages of Bhutan are still not well-characterized, and several have yet to be recorded in an in-depth academic grammar. English now has official status as well. The literacy rate is only 42.2 percent (56.2 percent of males and 28.1 percent of females). People 14 years old and younger comprise 39.1 percent, while people between 15 and 59 comprise 56.9 percent, and those over 60 are only 4 percent. The country had a median age of 20.4 years. Bhutan has a life expectancy of 64. years (61 for males and 64.5 for females) according to the latest data from the world bank. There are 1,070 males to every 1,000 females in the country.

Culture

Bhutan remains one of the most secluded nations in the world, and foreigners are not permitted to travel to many of its areas to minimise the effects of tourism on the local culture. In contrast to Nepal, which is well-known as a budget travel destination, Bhutan attempts to limit tourism to group tourists willing to pay upwards of USD 100 per day. The traditional dress for Ngalong and Sharchop men is the gho, a knee-length robe tied at the waist by a cloth belt known as the kera. Women wear an ankle-length dress, the kira, which is clipped at one shoulder and tied at the waist. An accompaniment to the kira is a long-sleeved blouse, which is worn underneath the outer layer. Social status and class determine the texture, colours, and decorations that embellish the garments. Scarves and shawls are also indicators of social standings, as Bhutan has traditionally been a feudal society. Earrings are worn by both males and females. Controversially, Bhutanese law now requires these Tibetan-style garments for all Bhutanese citizens--including the Nepalese, who are not of Tibetan stock. Rice and, increasingly, corn are the staple foods of the country. The diet in the hills is rich in protein because of the consumption of meat—chiefly poultry, yak and mutton. Soups of meat, rice, and corn spiced with chillies are a favourite meal during the cold seasons. Soups, rice or corn, and curries spiced with chillies are major components of the Bhutanese diet. Dairy foods, particularly butter and cheese from yaks and cows, are also popular, despite the scarcity of milk. Popular beverages include butter tea and beer. Bhutan is the only country in the world to have banned tobacco smoking and sale of tobacco. tobacco Bhutan's national sport is archery, and competitions are held regularly in most villages. It differs from Olympic standards not only in technical details such as the placement of the targets, but also in that participants are encouraged to drink heavily, and mock one another as they shoot (behavior forbidden in Olympic play). Another traditional sport is the digor, a type of shot put. Soccer is an increasingly popular sport. Rigsagar is the dominant style of popular music, played on a stringed instrument, and dates back to the late 1960s; it shows the influence of Indian popular music, a hybrid form of traditional and Western popular influences. Traditional genres include the zhungdra and boedra. Characteristic of the region is a type of fortress known as dzong architecture. dzong architecture Bhutan has numerous public holidays, most of which centre around traditional seasonal, secular and religious festivals. They include winter solstice (around January 1, depending on the lunar calendar), lunar New Year (January or February), the king's birthday and the anniversary of his coronation, the official start of monsoon season (September 22), National Day (December 17), and various Buddhist and Hindu celebrations. Even the secular holidays have religious overtones, including religious dances and prayers for blessing the day. Masked dances and dance dramas are common traditional features at festivals, usually accompanied by traditional music. Energetic dancers, wearing colourful wooden or composition facemasks and stylised costumes, depict heroes, demons, death heads, animals, gods, and caricatures of common people. The dancers enjoy royal patronage, and preserve ancient folk and religious customs and perpetuate the ancient art of mask making. The Kuensel is Bhutan's only legal newspaper (several samizdat periodicals may be found on the internet), circulates biweekly in Dzongkha, English and Nepali. Bhutan has about 15,000 Internet users, 25,200 landline users, and 23,000 mobile phone subscribers. The Bhutan Broadcasting Service was established in 1973 as a radio service, broadcasting in short wave nationally, and on the FM band in Thimpu. The service started television broadcasts in 1999, and was the last country in the world to introduce television. As part of its modernization program, the ban on television was lifted and cable television was introduced. By 2002, however, the crime rate had increased appreciably, and the introduction of cable television is alleged to be responsible for the spurt in crime. Bhutanese lama Dzongsar Jamyang Khyentse Rinpoche is a well-known filmmaker who produced and directed The Cup as well as Travelers and Magicians. While the cup was shot in a Tibetan monestary in northern India, Travelers and Magicians came to be the first feature film to be filmed entirely in Bhutan with a caste comprised entirely of Bhutanese people. No professional actors were used in either of the two films.

External links

- [http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2001/sa/8228.htm U.S. State Dept. Human Rights Report--Bhutan]
- [http://www.bhutantimes.com www.bhutantimes.com A bhutanese forum with discussions of current events in Bhutan]
- [http://www.bhootan.org/thronson/thronson_demographic.htm A Discussion of Bhutanese Demographics]
- [http://reference.allrefer.com/country-guide-study/bhutan/bhutan43.html Economic Information By Sector]
- [http://www.bhutan.gov.bt/ Government of Bhutan portal]
- [http://www.tourism.gov.bt/ Department of Tourism] — Official tourism bureau site
- [http://www.bhutanstudies.org.bt/ The Centre for Bhutan Studies] — Research and scholarship on Bhutan
- [http://www.bhutanarchery.com/compound.asp Bhutanese Traditional Archery]
-
- [http://anjool.co.uk/bhutan.htm#interview Interview with Prince of Bhutan]

Notes

# [http://www.tribuneindia.com/2005/20050126/main5.htm The Tribune] # India's Ministry of External Affairs provides financial aid to neighbouring countries under "technical and economic cooperation with other countries and advances to foreign governments." [http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020301/budget.htm The Tribune, Chandigarh] # [http://www.yogajournal.com/views/1332_1.cfm Yoga Journal] # [http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/EL19Df04.html Asian Times] # [http://www.bhutannewsonline.com/bhutan_china.html Bhutan News Online] # Official Bhutan government figure is much smaller than the figure mentioned here, which is sourced from the CIA factbook. The reason for this discrepancy is that Nepali citizens who do not meet the citizenship critera are not counted in the official national census. All figures on this page are quoted from the CIA factbook. # [http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,975769,00.html Fast forward into trouble], The Guardian

References

-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- Category:Landlocked countries Category:Monarchies Category:SAARC members ja:ブータン ko:부탄 ms:Bhutan simple:Bhutan th:ประเทศภูฏาน zh-min-nan:Bhutan

Bangladesh

:Note: You may need a [http://www.nongnu.org/freebangfont/ Bengali Font] to see all the characters on this page. The People's Republic of Bangladesh is a south Asian country bordering India, Myanmar and the Bay of Bengal. Together with the West Bengal province of India, it comprises the ethno-linguistic region of Bengal. The name Bangladesh is written as বাংলাদেশ and pronounced . It means "country of Bengal" but the origin of the word Bangla (Bengal) is obscure. The borders of Bangladesh were demarcated in 1947 when it became the eastern wing, separated by 1000 miles, of Pakistan. Despite their common religion, the ethnic and linguistic gulf between east and west was compounded by the ruling west's neglect and persecution. Bangladesh won its independence in 1971, after a bloody war supported by India. In its three and a half decades of independence marked by political turmoil and corruption, Bangladesh has had 13 different heads of government, two of them assassinated, and at least four coups. Its last two political transitions were lawful, but growing Islamist terrorism is undermining this newfound stability. Bangladesh is belied by its modest land area (about the size of Greece). Its population ranks 7th in the world and 3rd among Muslim-majority nations. It is the most densely populated country in the world, apart from a handful of city-states. Geographically dominated by the fertile Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta the country undergoes annual monsoon floods and cyclones are also common. Bangladesh is one of the founding members of SAARC and a member of the OIC and the D8.

History

Early history

Remnants of civilization in the greater Bengal region date back three millenia when it was settled by Dravidians. The region was mostly fractured into unaffiliated units that were ruled by various kingdoms and empires, both foreign and domestic. From the 4th through 6th centuries CE, the region came under the influence of the Hindu Gupta Empire. Aftwerwards a dynamic Bengali named Shashanka erected an impressive but short-lived kingdom. With the launch of the Buddhist Pala dynasty in the 8th century CE the religion reached its most ascendent moment, but retreated during the 12th century Sena dynasty.

Mughal Era

Islam made its first appearance in Bengal during the 12th century CE when Sufi missionaries arrived. Later occasional Muslim invaders reinforced the process of conversion. Bengal was conquered by the Mughal empire in the 16th century. Dhaka became an important provincial center of Mughal administration as the seat of the Nawab. The Bengali ethnic and linguistic identity probably cystallized during this period, since the whole of Bengal was united for the first time under an able and long-lasting administration. Furthermore its inhabitants were given sufficient autonomy to cultivate their own customs and literature.

British Era

Portugese, Dutch, French and British traders began to arrive in the late 15th century CE and by the late 18th century the British East India Company gained control of Bengal following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. This was the first conquest, in a series of engagements that ultimately lead to the expulsion of other European competitors, the defeat of the Mughals and the consolidation of the subcontinent under the rule of a corporation -- a doubly unique event. Calcutta (nowadays Kolkata) on the Hooghly became a major trading port for Muslin and Jute. Scandals and the bloody rebellion known as the Sepoy Mutiny prompted the British government to intervene. In 1858, authority in India was transferred from the East India Company to the crown and the rebellion was brutally surpressed. Rule of India was organized under a Viceroy and continued a pattern of economic exploitation. Famine racked the subcontinent many times, including at least two major famines in Bengal. The Raj was politically organized into 17 Provinces, of which Bengal was one of the most significant, most headed by a Governor. For a brief period in the early 20th century, an abortive attempt was made to divide Bengal into two zones.

1947 Partition

Britain, having exhausted its resources during World War II, could no longer hold on to its colonies. Mountbatten was appointed as Viceroy expressly for the purpose of effecting a graceful exit that would set the stage for a close relationship between India and Britain. But the Viceroy was unable to reconcile differences between the Congress Party led by Nehru and Gandhi with the Jinnah's Muslim League, which had been calling for the creation of a new Islamic state comprising the Muslim-majority areas. But the Muslim League did not have much political success among Muslim voters until communal violence broke out in Calcutta in 1946. These ominous signs theatened a widespread outbreak of Muslim-Hindu violence that the British would be unable to control. The leaders agreed on a solution for partition which involved referenda in each Province and Princely State to select which country, Pakistan or India, each would join. Two exceptions were made: Punjab and Bengal were to be dissected along religious lines. There was great concern over the probability of communal violence in Amritsar, Lahore and Calcutta. Indeed the Punjab's worst fears shortly became reality, but were largely averted in Calcutta thanks to the intervention of Gandhi. Then almost 80, he fasted nearly to death in order to protect the minority Muslim communities in the city. Prior to partition he had accomplished the same for the Hindu communities in Noakhali (now part of Bangladesh).

East Pakistan

The Bengali portion of Pakistan was organized as a province called East Bengal with its capital in Dhaka. In 1950, land reform was accomplished in East Bengal through the abolition of the feudal Zamindari system. The Language Movement of 1952 was the first sign of friction between the two wings of Pakistan. The east rejected an attempt by the politically dominant west to establish Urdu as the national language, an event commemorated now as the International Mother Language Day. In 1955, the province's name was changed to East Pakistan in an effort to reinforce flagging nationalism. Troubles in East Pakistan continued to rise. The Bengali Awami League agitated for autonomy and in 1966 its president Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was jailed for a time. The upper levels of Pakistan's government and military were dominated by the feudal classes from the west, despite the fact that the economic and demographic weight of the east was equal or greater. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Tensions came to a head during 1971 in the face of two disasters: one natural and one political. A massive cyclone devasted coastal East Pakistan and the storm's impact was exacerbated by the central government's poor response. The anger was compounded when Mujib, who's Awami League fairly won a majority in Parliament, was blocked from taking the reigns of government. Mujib is still remembered for his delivery of an electrifying oratory http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/S_0223.HTM at a racetrack in Dhaka and became known as Bôngobondhu or "Friend of Bengal". After stalling for time by staging compromise talks with Mujib, President Yahya Khan arrested him and on March 25th launched an all-out military assault on East Pakistan. Yahya's methods were extremely bloody, as he intended to intimidate the Bengalis into total submission. His slaughter of unarmed innocents was similar in scale to that of the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia. Chief targets included intellectuals and Hindus. Ten million refugees fled across the border into India and rough estimates of those massacred range from several hundred thousand to as many as 3 million [http://users.erols.com/mwhite28/warstat2.htm#Bangladesh], [http://www.virtualbangladesh.com/history/holocaust.html]. The Bangladesh Liberation War lasted for 9 months. The guerrilla Mukti Bahini and Bengali regulars eventually received decisive support from the Indian army in December of 1972. The surrender of more than 90000 Pakistani troops was the largest ever. The terms of surrender made way for the triumphant return of Mujib from his incarceration in West Pakistan and of course the independence of East Pakistan.

Independent Bangladesh

The enigmatic Mujib proved to be less able an administrator than a figurehead of the independence movement. His influence on the country, whether positive or negative, animates Bangladeshi debate to this day. He was at once devoted to the welfare of his fellow Bengalis and deeply suspicious of intrigues against his rule. Mujib outwardly championed the Awami League ideologies of nationalism, secularism, socialism and democracy -- principles that were embodied in the constitution. He also permitted corruption to thrive so that it would tarnish the reputation of potential rivals. In 1975, Mujib and his family were assassinated by mid-level military officers and a string of coups led to the rise of war-hero General Ziaur Rahman. Zia's legacy in a sense represents the alter-ego to Mujib's in modern Bangladeshi political discourse. He added to his popularity by giving Bangladesh an international presence, most notably in lobbying successfully for full inclusion in the UN General Assembly. He also adopted symbolic changes to the constitution, declaring Islam as the state religion. Though less secular than Mujib, Zia had a similar attitude towards corruption in the country's law-of-the-jungle political climate. Zia restored democracy by calling and winning an election in 1978, en route creating the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP). However, amid declining popularity, he was assassinated by elements of the military three years later. Bangladesh's next major ruler was another strongman General Hossain Mohammad Ershad. He ruled from 1982-90 when he was ousted in a popular uprising. Since that time Bangladesh has reverted to a semblance of democracy, albeit with spiraling corruption. Zia's widow Begum Khaleda Zia rose to head the BNP and the country from 1991-96 and again from 2001 until the present (next election is in 2006). She maintains an acrimonious rivalry with Mujib's surviving daughter Sheikh Hasina who heads the Awami League and came to power from 1996-2001.

Politics

Structure of the Government

Bangladesh is a Parliamentary democracy. The President is the head of state and holds a largely ceremonial post. The real power, however, is held by the Prime Minister, who is head of government. The president is elected by the legislature every five years and has normally limited powers that are substantially expanded during the tenure of a caretaker government, mainly in controlling the transition to a new government. The prime minister is ceremonially appointed by the president and must be a member of parliament (MP) who commands the confidence of the majority of other MPs. The cabinet is composed of ministers selected by the prime minister and appointed by the president. The unicameral Bangladeshi parliament is the House of the Nation or Jatiya Sangsad, which has 300 members are elected by popular vote from single territorial constituencies for five-year terms of office. The remaining 45 seats are reserved for women, and allocated among the political parties according to their representation of elected members. There is Universal suffrage, citizens attain the right to vote at the age of 18. The highest judiciary body is the Supreme Court, of which the chief justices and other judges are appointed by the president.

Political parties

Khaleda Zia began her second (non-contiguous) 5-year term as Prime Minister in 2001. She is the head of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) which has formed a coalition with Jatiya and the two moderate Islamist parties Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh and Islami Oikya Jot. Two radical Islamist parties were banned in February, 2005. The opposition is led by Sheikh Hasina and the Awami League, which has been a key party since and prior to independence. Awami tends to adopt a more secular stance and tilts towards India while BNP has closer relations with Pakistan. Awami-BNP rivalry has been bitter and punctuated by protests and violence. In 2005 Bangladesh was [http://www.transparency.org/policy_and_research/surveys_indices/cpi named] the most corrupt country in the world for the fifth year in a row (although in 2004 it shared this distinction with Haiti).

Subdivisions

Awami League Bangladesh is subdivided into six administrative divisions, all named after their respective divisional headquarters:
- Barisal বরিশাল
- Chittagong চট্টগ্রাম
- Dhaka ঢাকা
- Khulna খুলনা
- Rajshahi রাজশাহী
- Sylhet সিলেট The next level of administrative unit is a district or Zila (জিলা) (in Bangla). There are 64 districts in Bangladesh. For more information, see Districts of Bangladesh. Each district is further subdivided into Thana or Police stations (formerly called upa-zila or sub-districts). Each police station, except for those in metropolitan areas, is divided into several unions. The unions consist of many villages. In the metropolitan areas, the unit is a ward, which consists of several mahalla or areas. Dhaka is the country's capital and largest city. Other major cities include Chittagong, Rajshahi, Sylhet, and Khulna. See List of cities in Bangladesh.

Geography

List of cities in Bangladesh Bangladesh consists mostly of a low-lying river delta located on the Indian subcontinent with a largely marshy jungle coastline on the Bay of Bengal known as the Sundarbans, home to the (Royal) Bengal Tiger and one of the largest mangrove forests in the world. Bangladesh is situated in the geographic region named The Ganges Delta (also known as the Ganges-Brahmaputra River Delta). This delta is the largest in the world. Having densely vegetated lands, Bangladesh is often called the Green Delta. The densely populated delta is formed by the confluence of the Ganges (local name Padma or Pôddā), Brahmaputra (Jomunā), and Meghna rivers and their tributaries as they flow down from the Himalaya, creating the largest riverine delta in the world. Bangladesh's alluvial soil is highly fertile but vulnerable to both flood and drought. Hills rise above the plain only in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (highest point: the Keokradong at 1230 m) in the far southeast and the Sylhet division in the northeast. Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, the Bangladeshi climate is tropical with a mild winter from October to March, a hot, humid summer from March to June, and a humid, warm rainy monsoon from June to October. Natural calamities, such as floods, tropical cyclones, tornadoes, and tidal bores affect the country almost every year, combined with the effects of deforestation, soil degradation and erosion. Cox's Bazar, South of the city of Chittagong, has a sea beach that stretches uninterrupted over 120 km; it is frequently quoted as the World's longest natural sea beach (although this claim is difficult to prove or disprove).

Economy

Cox's Bazar Despite sustained domestic and international efforts to improve economic and demographic prospects, Bangladesh remains an underdeveloped, overpopulated, and ill-governed nation. Jute was once the economic engine of Bangladesh. Its share of the world export market peaked in the late 1940s at 80% [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/J_0135.HTM] and even in the early 1970s accounted for 70% of its export earnings. Bangladesh also grows significant quantities of rice, tea and mustard. Although two-thirds of Bangladeshis are farmers, nowadays more than three quarters of Bangadesh's export earnings come from the garment industry [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4118969.stm], which began attracting foreign investors in the 1980s due to cheap labor. The garment industry now employs almost 40% of the female population. Major impediments to growth include frequent cyclones and floods, inefficient state-owned enterprises, mismanaged port facilities, a growth in the labor force that has outpaced jobs, inefficient use of energy resources (such as natural gas), insufficient power supplies, slow implementation of economic reforms, political infighting and corruption. According to the World Bank's Country Brief updated July, 2005: "Among Bangladesh’s most significant obstacles to growth are poor governance and weak public institutions." [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/BANGLADESHEXTN/0,,menuPK:295769~pagePK:141132~piPK:141107~theSitePK:295760,00.html] In July 2004, Bangladesh was ravaged by its worst floods in six years, described by the UN as a "quiet disaster". Hundreds were killed and 30 million were displaced from their homes. Damages to crops, the garment industry and other infrastructure was over $2 billion (Riaz, 2004). In spite of the hurdles, since 1990 the country has achieved an average annual growth rate of 5% according to the World Bank. The middle class and with it the consumer industry has seen some growth. The July 19, 2005 issue of the New York Times reported that an eight story shopping mall (the largest in South Asia) recently opened in Dhaka. The capital's population has swelled to a stunning 15 million, indicative of the migration of labor. Nevertheless, Bangaladeshis continue to live predominantly in rural villages. Microcredit loans, the brainchild of Bangladeshi economist Muhammad Yunus who founded Grameen Bank, have lifted many rural women out of extreme poverty.

Demographics

Bangladesh has a population of 144 million (July 2005 est.) making it the 7th most populous country in the world after Pakistan and before Russia. Apart from a few small countries with fewer than 1 million inhabitants, Bangladesh is the most densely populated country in the world at about 1000 persons per km². In the mid-1980's, the government promoted birth control in order to slow a massive population growth rate. This program has helped to reduce the growth rate to about 2 percent. Bangladesh is ethnically homogeneous, with Bengalis comprising 98% of the population. The remainder is made up mostly from Bihari migrants and autonomous tribal groups located mainly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts. The main language, as in West Bengal, is Bengali (Bangla), an Indo-Aryan language of Sanskrit origin (the other major Sanskrit-based tongue being Hindi). The language is written in its own Bengali script. Bengali is the official language, but English, widely spoken as a second language among the middle and upper classes, is often accepted in official tasks and higher education. The two major religions are Islam (83% CIA est. 1998, 88% US State Dept. est. 2005) and, to a lesser extent, Hinduism (16% CIA est. 1998, 11% US State Dept. 2005). The ethnic Biharis are predominantly Shia Muslims. There are also a small number of Buddhists, Christians, and Animists. Health and education levels have improved steadily while poverty levels have gone down. Nevertheless, Bangladesh remains among the poorest nations in the world. Most Bangladeshis are rural and poor, living off of subsistence farming. Nearly half of the population lives on less than 1 USD per day. Health problems abound, ranging from surface water contamination, to arsenic in the ground water, and other diseases like HIV/AIDS, malaria and denge. Literacy rates are 54% among men and 32% among women. Sources: CIA World Factbook, US Department of State, World Bank

Culture

Schoolchildren in Bangladesh are taught the saying "mache bhate Bangali", or "rice and fish make a Bengali". Food is central to Bangladeshi culture and Bengalis are renowned for their hospitality. The region is known in the subcontinent for its fish and vegetable curries and dal (a lentil stew); Dhaka's sweet shops also have an outstanding reputation. They are also avid tea (cha) drinkers as evidenced by the tea shanties which dot the riverbanks and road-sides. Various culinary traditions from the British era persist including high tea, tiffin and a pudding similar to flan. The Bengali language boasts a rich literary tradition, especially in its poetry and songs. One of the most revered poets is Rabindranath Tagore who was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1913 for his collection Gitanjali which he wrote both in Bengali and English. Many of his poems have been incorporated into songs like Bangladesh's tenderly passionate national anthem Amar Shonar Bangla (My Golden Bengal). Bangladesh has a National Poet, named Kazi Nazrul Islam. Nazrul, fondly known as "Rebel Poet" for his poem Bidrohi (Rebel), helped to inspire the movement which culminated in Bangladesh's independence in 1971. Bengali poetry is characterized by romantic themes and draws frequently on metaphors from nature. Evidence of the strong culural bond to language is provided by the 1952 Language Movement, an uprising against establishment of Urdu as the national language in erstwhile Pakistan. February 21 is celebrated locally as Language Movement Day and internationally as the International Mother Language Day. Bangladeshis, like others from the subcontinent and beyond, are avid consumers of Bollywood-style cinema which focuses on music, dance and marriage. Calcutta, in West Bengal, has had its own thriving Bengali-language movie industry, and now Bangladesh too produces about 60 movies per year. The West Bengali film maker Satyajit Ray won an Oscar for lifetime achievement. Children are fond of hearing stories about Raja Birbal, a clever advisor and jester of sorts in the court of 16th century Mughal Emperor Akbar. Sources: Virtual Bangladesh
- Performing arts of Bangladesh
- Islam in Bangladesh
- Hinduism in Bangladesh
- Buddhism in Bangladesh
- Music of Bangladesh

Sports

Cricket is perhaps the most popular sport in Bangladesh. The Bangladeshi Tigers joined the elite 10-nation league of national teams that play test matches in 2000. Other popular sports include football, field hockey, tennis, badminton, handball, kabadi, volleyball, chess and carrom. Kabadi (কাবাডি), a 7-on-7 team sport played without a ball or any other equipment, is notable because it has been honored as the National Game of Bangladesh since 1972. In that year, the Bangladesh Sports Control Board was established, and as of 2005 it regulates 29 different sporting federations. On the international stage, Bangladesh has had its most noteworthy successes in cricket and chess. In 2005, Bangladesh won its first 5-day test match against Zimbabwe and defeated the 2003 world champion Australia in a one-day match. In chess, Bangladesh has had two Grandmasters: Niaz Morshed and more recently Ziaur Rahman. Sources: Banglapedia [http://www.banglapedia.org], BBC News

Education

Education in Bangladesh is highly subsidized by the Government, which operates many schools and colleges in the primary, secondary and higher secondary level as well as many public universities. The whole country is divided into seven education boards (Dhaka, Chittagong, Rajshahi, Jessore, Barishal, Sylhet and Comilla Education Boards) which oversee education from the primary to the higher secondary level, and conduct the primary and junior scholarship examinations, the Secondary School Certificate examination, and the Higher Secondary Certificate examination. The Government also provides a large portion of the salaries of the teachers in non-government schools. To promote literacy among women, education is free up to the higher secondary level for female students. There is also a Government-funded program which gives incentives like stipends and food for continuing education in the secondary level. The literacy rate in Bangladesh is approximately 42% There are 22 Public Universities in Bangladesh. Five of them provide engineering education, and the rest are general universities. In the last one decade education in higher studies were boomed by the help of the Private Universities. There are now 52 private universities in Bangladesh.

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in Bangladesh
- Foreign relations of Bangladesh
- List of Bangladeshis
- Military of Bangladesh
- Bangladesh Air Force
- Bangladesh Army
- Bangladesh Navy
- Professional Institute
- NGOs in Bangladesh
- Public holidays in Bangladesh
- Transportation in Bangladesh
- Biman Bangladesh
- Universities in Bangladesh
- Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) [http://www.buet.ac.bd Official Website]
- University of Chittagong (চট্টগ্রাম বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়) - CU
- University of Dhaka (ঢাকা বিশ্ববিদ্যালয় ) - DU
- Jahangirnagar University (জাহাঙ্গীরনগর বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়) - JU
- Khulna University (খুলনা বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়) - KU
- Rajshahi University (রাজশাহী বিশ্ববিদ্যালয়) - RU

External links

Government and government organizations

- [http://www.nbr-bd.org Bangladesh Customs Home Page (National Board of Revenue)]
- [http://www.bangladesh.gov.bd Bangladesh Government Official Web Page]
- [http://www.bttb.gov.bd Bangladesh Telephone and Telegraph Board (BTTB/T&T)]
- [http://www.dhakacity.org Dhaka City Corporation]
- [http://www.bd-ec.org/index.php3 Election Commission Secretariat]
- [http://www.parliamentofbangladesh.org/indexeng.html Legislative Information Centre - Official parliamentary site]

Newspapers

Online Bangladeshi news sources

- [http://www.bangladeshjournal.com/ The Bangladesh Journal]
- [http://www.bangladeshnewsarchives.com/ Bangladesh News Archives]
- [http://www.bangladesh-web.com/ News from Bangladesh]

References

- [http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/H_0136.htm Banglapedia article on History of Bangladesh]
- U.S. Department of State (Aug. 2005). [http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3452.htm "Background Note: Bangladesh"]
- Collins, Larry; & Lapierre, Dominique (1986). Freedom at Midnight (18th ed.). New Delhi: Vikas Publishers. ISBN 0-7069-2770-2.
- Imam, Jahanara; (Transl.) Rahman, Mustafizur (1998). Of Blood and Fire: The Untold Story of Bangladesh's War of Independence (2nd ed.). Dhaka: University Press Ltd. ISBN 984-05-1423-7.
- Mascarenhas, Anthony (1986). Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood. London: Hodder & Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-39420-X.
- Ali Riaz (2005). [http://www.ilstu.edu/~ariaz/AS450114.pdf Bangladesh in 2004: The Politics of Vengeance and the Erosion of Democracy], Asia Survey, XLV(Jan/Feb): 112-118. Category:Bengal Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations Category:South Asian countries Category:SAARC members zh-min-nan:Bangladesh ko:방글라데시 ms:Bangladesh ja:バングラデシュ th:ประเทศบังคลาเทศ

Indian Ocean

:This article is about the water body. For the Indian fusion music band, see Indian Ocean (band). The Indian Ocean is the third-largest body of water in the world, covering about 20% of the Earth's water surface. It is bounded on the north by southern Asia (the Indian subcontinent); on the west by the Arabian Peninsula and Africa; on the east by the Malay Peninsula, the Sunda Islands, and Australia; and on the south by the Southern Ocean. It is separated from the Atlantic Ocean by the 20°east meridian south of Africa, and from the Pacific by the 147°east meridian. The northernmost extent of the Indian Ocean is approximately 30°north latitude in the Persian Gulf. This ocean is nearly 10,000 km (6,200 mi) wide at the southern tips of Africa and Australia; its area is 73,556,000 km² (28,400,000 mi²), including the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. The ocean's volume is estimated to be 292,131,000 km³ (70,086,000 mi³). Small islands dot the continental rims. Island nations within the ocean are Madagascar (formerly Malagasy Republic), the world's fourth largest island; Comoros; Seychelles; Maldives; Mauritius; and Sri Lanka. Indonesia borders it. The ocean's importance as a transit route between Asia and Africa has made it a scene of conflict. Because of its size, however, no one nation had successfully dominated until the early 1800s when Britain controlled much of the surrounding land. right

Environment

The African, Indian, and Antarctic crustal plates converge in the Indian Ocean. Their junctures are marked by branches of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge forming an inverted Y, with the stem running south from the edge of the continental shelf near Mumbai, India. The eastern, western, and southern basins thus formed are subdivided into smaller basins by ridges. The ocean's continental shelves are narrow, averaging 200 km (125 mi) in width. An exception is found off Australia's western coast, where the shelf width exceeds 1,000 km (600 mi). The average depth of the ocean is 3,890 m (12,760 ft). Its deepest point, in the Java Trench, is estimated to be 7,450 m (24,442 ft). North of 50° south latitude, 86% of the main basin is covered by pelagic sediments, of which more than one-half is globigerina ooze. The remaining 14% is layered with terrigenous sediments. Glacial outwash dominates the extreme southern latitudes.

Climate

The climate north of the equator is affected by a Monsoon wind system. Strong northeast winds blow from October until April; from May until October south and west winds prevail. In the Arabian Sea the violent monsoon brings rain to the Indian subcontinent. In the southern hemisphere the winds generally are milder, but summer storms near Mauritius can be severe. When the monsoon winds change, cyclones sometimes strike the shores of the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal.

Hydrology

Bay of Bengal Among the few large rivers flowing into the Indian Ocean are the Zambezi, Arvandrud/Shatt-al-Arab, Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Irrawaddy. Currents are largely controlled by the monsoon. Two large circular currents, one in the northern hemisphere flowing clockwise and one south of the equator moving counterclockwise, constitute the dominant flow pattern. During the winter monsoon, however, currents in the north are reversed. Deepwater circulation is controlled primarily by inflows from the Atlantic Ocean, the Red Sea, and Antarctic currents. North of 20°south latitude the minimum surface temperature is 22°C (72°F), exceeding 28°C (82°F) to the east. Southward of 40°south latitude, temperatures drop quickly. Surface water salinity ranges from 32 to 37 parts per 1,000, the highest occurring in the Arabian Sea and in a belt between southern Africa and southwestern Australia. Pack ice and icebergs are found throughout the year south of about 65°south latitude. The average northern limit of icebergs is 45°south latitude.

Economy

The Indian Ocean provides major sea routes connecting the Middle East, Africa, and East Asia with Europe and the Americas. It carries a particularly heavy traffic of petroleum and petroleum products from the oilfields of the Persian Gulf and Indonesia. Large reserves of hydrocarbons are being tapped in the offshore areas of Saudi Arabia, Iran, India, and western Australia. An estimated 40% of the world's offshore oil production comes from the Indian Ocean. Beach sands rich in heavy minerals and offshore placer deposits are actively exploited by bordering countries, particularly India, South Africa, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The warmth of the Indian Ocean keeps phytoplankton production low, except along the northern fringes and in a few scattered spots elsewhere; life in the ocean is thus limited. Fishing is confined to subsistence levels. Its fish are of great and growing importance to the bordering countries for domestic consumption and export. Fishing fleets from Russia, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan also exploit the Indian Ocean, mainly for shrimp and tuna.

History

The earliest known civilizations, in the valleys of the Nile, Euphrates, Tigris, and Indus rivers and in Southeast Asia, have developed near the Indian Ocean. During Egypt's 1st dynasty (c. 3000 BCE), sailors were sent out onto its waters, journeying to Punt, thought to be part of present-day Somalia. Returning ships brought gold and Myrrh. Phoenicians of the 3rd millennium BCE may have entered the area, but no settlements resulted. The Indian Ocean is far calmer and thus open to trade earlier than the Atlantic or Pacific. The powerful monsoons also meant ships could easily sail them west early in the season, then wait a few months and return eastwards. This allowed Indonesian peoples to cross the Indian Ocean to settle in Madagascar. In the second or first century BCE Eudoxus of Cyzicus was the first Greek to cross the Indian Ocean. Hippalus is said to have discovered the direct route from Arabia to India around this time. During the first and second century CE intensive trade relations developed between Roman Egypt and the Tamil kingdoms of the Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas in Southern India. Like the Indonesian people above, the western sailors used the monsoon to cross the Ocean. The unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea describes this route and the ports and trade goods along the coasts of Africa and India around 70 CE. In 1497 Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed to India, the first European to do so. The European ships, armed with heavy cannon, quickly came to dominate the trade. Portugal at first attempted to achieve pre-eminence setting up forts an the important straits and ports. But the small nation was unable to support such a vast project and they were replaced in the mid-1600s by other European powers. The Dutch East India Company (1602-1798) sought control of trade with the East across the Indian Ocean. France and Britain established trade companies for the area. Eventually Britain became the principal power and by 1815 dominated the area. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 revived European interest in the East, but no nation was successful in establishing trade dominance. Since World War II the United Kingdom has withdrawn from the area, to be only partially replaced by India, the USSR, and the United States. The last two have tried to establish hegemony by negotiating for naval base sites. Developing countries bordering the ocean, however, seek to have it made a "zone of peace" so that they may use its shipping lanes freely. Though the United States did manage to salvage a naval base for itself at Deigo Garcia in the middle of the Indian Ocean. On December 26 2004 the countries surrounding the Indian Ocean were hit by tsunamis caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The waves resulted in more than 226,000 deaths and over 1 million homeless.

Data

Southern Ocean: A spring 2000 decision by the International Hydrographic Organization delimited a fifth world ocean, stripping the southern portions of the Indian Ocean. The new ocean extends from the coast of Antarctica north to 60°south latitude which coincides with the Antarctic Treaty Limit. The Indian Ocean remains the third-largest of the world's five oceans. Area:
- total: 68.556 million km²
- seas: includes Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Great Australian Bight, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Laccadive Sea, Mozambique Channel, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, Strait of Malacca, and other tributary water bodies Coastline: 66,526 km Climate: northeast monsoon (December to April), southwest monsoon (June to October); tropical cyclones occur during May/June and October/November in the northern Indian Ocean and January/February in the southern Indian Ocean Terrain: surface dominated by counterclockwise gyre (broad, circular system of currents) in the southern Indian Ocean; unique reversal of surface currents in the northern Indian Ocean; low atmospheric pressure over southwest Asia from hot, rising, summer air results in the southwest monsoon and southwest-to-northeast winds and currents, while high pressure over northern Asia from cold, falling, winter air results in the northeast monsoon and northeast-to-southwest winds and currents; ocean floor is dominated by the Mid-Indian Ocean Ridge and subdivided by the Southeast Indian Ocean Ridge, Southwest Indian Ocean Ridge, and Ninetyeast Ridge Graphics of the seabed terrain produced by the Royal Navy & British Geological Survey in 2005 can be found here. Elevation extremes:
- lowest point: Java Trench -7,258 m
- highest point: sea level 0 m Natural resources: oil and gas fields, fish, shrimp, sand and gravel aggregates, placer deposits, polymetallic nodules Environment - current issues: endangered marine species include the dugong, seals, turtles, and whales; oil pollution in the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Red Sea Geography - note: major chokepoints include Bab el Mandeb, Strait of Hormuz, Strait of Malacca, southern access to the Suez Canal, and the Lombok Strait Ports and harbors: Calcutta (India), Chennai (Madras; India), Colombo (Sri Lanka), Durban (South Africa), Jakarta (Indonesia), Karachi (Pakistan), Fremantle (Australia), Mumbai (Bombay; India), Richards Bay (South Africa), Visakhapatnam (India),Kochi(India)

References

- Braun, D., The Indian Ocean (1983)
- Chandra, S., ed., The Indian Ocean (1987);
- Chaudhuri, K. N., Trade and Civilization in the Indian Ocean (1985);
- Cousteau, Jacques-Yves, and Diole, Philippe, Life and Death in a Coral Sea (1971);
- Cubitt, Gerald, Islands of the Indian Ocean (1975);
- Das Gupta, A., and Pearson, M.N., India and the Indian Ocean (1987);
- Dowdy, W. L., and Trood, R., eds., The Indian Ocean (1985);
- Kerr, A., ed., Resources and Development in the Indian Ocean Region (1981);
- Nairn, A. E., and Stehli, F. G., eds., The Ocean Basins and Margins, Vol. 6: The Indian Ocean (1982);
- Ostheimer, John M., ed., The Politics of the Western Indian Ocean Islands (1975);
- Toussaint, Auguste, The History of the Indian Ocean, trans. by June Guicharnaud (1966). Much of this text is based on public domain text by US Naval Oceanographer at: http://oceanographer.navy.mil/indian.html

External links

- [http://dapper.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/ NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer] Plot and download ocean observations Category:Oceans Category:Indian Ocean zh-min-nan:Ìn-tō·-iûⁿ ko:인도양 ja:インド洋 simple:Indian Ocean th:มหาสมุทรอินเดีย

Island nation

An island nation is a country that is wholly confined to an island or island group, and has no territory on the mainland of the world's continents. Forty-seven of the world's countries are island nations, including most of the smallest ones. Island nations can be divided in two approximate groups. There are those that are large, relatively populous, and usually close to a continent. These include the United Kingdom, Japan, Indonesia, the Philippines, and Madagascar. These countries typically share cultural and political similarities with their continental neighbours. Their island status has sometimes been an important advantage that has isolated them from invasion and made them important in regional trade because of their locations and the maritime abilities of the population. Australia can be considered this category of nation taken to an extreme: an island nation so large it is considered a continent. Smaller island nations such as the Comoros, the Bahamas, Tonga, and the Maldives tend to be very different from continental nations. The small size usually means there is little agricultural land and rarely many natural resources. However, in modern times smaller island nations around the world have become centres for tourism, which in many is today the dominant industry. Some island nations are centered on one or two major islands, such as the United Kingdom and Fiji. Others are spread out over hundreds or thousands of smaller islands, such as Indonesia or the Maldives. Some island nations share their islands with other countries; these include the Republic of Ireland, Haiti, and Papua New Guinea. The opposite of an island nation is a landlocked one.

Maldives

The Republic of Maldives is an island nation consisting of a group of atolls in the Indian Ocean, south-southwest of India, about 700 kilometers south-west of Sri Lanka. The 26 atolls encompasses a territory featuring 1,192 islands, roughly 200 of which are inhabited by people. The country's name may stand for the "Palace" or "Mountain Islands" (from al-Mahal in Arabic, or malai in Malayalam / mala in Tamil, and dvipa in Sanskrit, respectively), or it might mean "a thousand islands." Following the introduction of Islam in 1153, the islands later became a Portuguese (1558), Dutch (1654), and British (1796) colonial possession. In 1965, Maldives declared its independence from Britain, and in 1968 the Sultanate was replaced by a Republic.

History

Main article: History of the Maldives Western interest in the archaeological remains of early cultures on Maldives began with the work of H.C.P. Bell, a British commissioner of the Ceylon Civil Service. Bell was shipwrecked on the islands in 1879, and returned several times to investigate ancient Buddhist ruins. Historians have established that by the fourth century A.D., Theravada Buddhism originating from Ceylon (present-day Sri Lanka) became the dominant religion of the people of Maldives. Some scholars believe that the name "Maldives" derives from the Sanskrit maladvipa, meaning "garland of islands." In the mid-1980s, the Maldivian government allowed the noted explorer and expert on early marine navigation, Thor Heyerdahl, to excavate ancient sites. Heyerdahl studied the ancient mounds, called hawitta by the Maldivians, found on many of the atolls. Some of his archaeological discoveries of stone figures and carvings from pre-Islamic civilizations are today exhibited in a side room of the small National Museum on Malé. Heyerdahl's research indicates that as early as 2000 B.C., Maldives lay on the maritime trading routes of early Egyptian, Mesopotamian, and Indus Valley civilizations. Heyerdahl believes that early sun-worshipping seafarers, called the Redin, first settled on the islands. Even today, many mosques in Maldives face the sun and not Mecca, lending credence to this theory. Because building space and materials were scarce, successive cultures constructed their places of worship on the foundations of previous buildings. Heyerdahl thus surmises that these sun-facing mosques were built on the ancient foundations of the Redin culture temples. According to Maldivian legend, a Sinhalese prince named Koimalaa was stranded with his bride--daughter of the king of Sri Lanka--in a Maldivian lagoon and stayed on to rule as the first sultan. Over the centuries, the islands have been visited and their development influenced by sailors from countries on the Arabian Sea and the Indian Ocean littorals. Mappila pirates from the Malabar Coast -- present-day Kerala state in India -- harassed the islands. Although governed as an independent Islamic sultanate for most of its history from 1153 to 1968, Maldives was a British protectorate from 1887 until July 25, 1965. In 1953, there was a brief, abortive attempt to form a republic, but the sultanate was re-imposed. The Maldivians followed Buddhism before they converted to Islam and the conversion is explained in a controversial mythological story about the demon Rannamaari. After independence from Britain in 1965, the sultanate continued to operate for another 3 years. On November 11, 1968, it was abolished and replaced by a republic, and the country assumed its present name. Tourism and fishing are being developed on the archipelago. On 26 December 2004 the Maldives were devastated by a tsunami following the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. The absence of land mass against which waves could be built up reduced the destructive impact, preventing the waves from reaching much more than 1.2 - 1.5 meters in height [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4148279.stm]. Despite this, the archipelago's low lying nature (one of the lowest lying countries on Earth) meant that nearly all of the country was swamped. At least 75 people perished, including six foreigners, and all infrastructure was lost on 13 of the inhabited islands and 29 of the resort islands.

The Economy

see Industries in Maldives

Fisheries

The Maldivian economy was for many centuries, entirely dependent on fishing and other marine products; therefore fishing has been and still remains the main occupation of the people. The government gives special priority to the development of the fisheries sector. The mechanization of the traditional fishing dhoani in 1974 was a major milestone in the development of the fisheries industry and the country's economy in general. A fish canning plant was installed in the island of Felivaru in 1977, as a joint venture with a Japanese firm. In 1979, a Fisheries Advisory Board was set up with the mandate of advising the government on policy guidelines for the overall development of the fisheries sector. Manpower development programs were begun in the early 1980s, and fisheries education was incorporated into the school curriculum. Fish aggregating devices and navigational aids were located at various strategic points. Moreover, the opening up of the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of Maldives for fisheries has further enhanced the growth of the fisheries sector. Today, fisheries contribute over 15 percent of the GDP and engage about 30 percent of the country's work force. It is also the second-largest foreign exchange earner after tourism.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in Maldives Tourism in Maldives] The development of tourism has fostered the overall growth of the country's economy. It has created direct and indirect employment and income generation opportunities in other related industries. Today, tourism is the country's biggest foreign exchange earner, contributing to 20 percent of the GDP. With 86 tourist resorts in operation, the year 2000 recorded 467,154 tourist arrivals.

Cottage industries

The development tourism sector gave a major boost to the country's fledging traditional cottage industries such as mat weaving, lacquer work, handicraft, and coir rope making. New industries that have since emerged include printing, production of PVC pipes, brick making, marine engine repairs, bottling of aerated water, garment production.

Politics

Main article: Politics of the Maldives Maumoon Abdul Gayoom was first elected president in 1978 and has retained power since, ruling in an authoritarian manner. He has survived a coup attempt that was foiled with help of Indian troops in 1988. Since 2003 the country has experienced occasional antigovernment demonstrations calling for political reforms. Political parties were allowed in June 2005. The first party to register was Maldivian Democratic Party (MDP) headed by popular opposition figures like Mohamed Nasheed (Anni) and Mohamed Latheef (Gogo). Dhivehi Raiyyithunge Party or the DRP headed by president Gayyoom was to register next. Currently MDP attracts huge support from the islanders and is believed to win the upcoming elections by a landslide.

Maldives and the Indian Ocean Commission

Since 1996, the Maldives has been the official progress monitor of the Indian Ocean Commission. In 2002, the Maldives applied for full membership, but was refused. The first reason they were rejected is that their geographical position is different from other member states. The Maldives are considered in Asia instead of Africa. The other reason was more complicated. The official language spoken by the Commission was French with Creole used in friendly conversations. The Maldives speak English and language totally unrelated to the other members. It was proposed to change the language to English, which the people of Reunion, Comoros and Mayotte do not speak, and so the idea was dropped. The third reason was due to the difference in historic background. However, the Maldives were given a more important role and semi-membership.

Atolls

Main article: Atolls of the Maldives The Maldives has 26 Natural atolls which have been divided into 20 administrative atolls and one city. [http://www.statoids.com/umv.html] The northern most atoll is Thiladhunmathi and the southern most is Addu. The smallest atoll is Fua Mulaku with only one island (the largest island in the Maldives). The largest atoll in both the Maldives and the whole world is Huvadhu which is just south of the One and a Half Degree Channel. Each atoll is administered by an Atoll Chief (Atholhu Veriyaa) appointed by the President (Maumoon Abdul Gayoom). Atoll chiefs administer as directed by the president. The Ministry of Atoll Administration and its Northern and Southern Regional Offices, Atoll Offices and Island Offices are collectively responsible to the President for Atolls Administration. The administrative head of each island is the Island Chief (Katheeb), appointed by the Ministry of Atolls Administration. The Island Chief's immediate superior is the Atoll Chief.

Geography

Main article: Geography of the Maldives The Maldives holds the record for being the flattest country in the world, with a maximum altitude of only 2.3 metres. Although there have been reports of rising sea levels threatening the islands, the sea level has actually lowered in recent decades. A tsunami in the Indian Ocean caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake caused parts of Maldives to be covered by sea water and left many people homeless. After the disaster, cartographers are planning to redraw the maps of the islands due to alterations by the tsunami. The people and government are worried that Maldives would be wiped out from the map eventually.

Demographics

Main article: Demographics of the Maldives The Maldivian ethnic identity is a blend of the cultures of peoples who settled on the islands, reinforced by religion and language. The earliest settlers were probably from southern India. Indo-European speakers followed them from Sri Lanka in the fourth and fifth centuries BC. In the 12th century AD, sailors from East Africa and Arab countries came to the islands. Originally Buddhists, Maldivians were converted to Sunni Islam in the mid-12th century. Islam is the official religion of the entire population. Strict adherence to Islamic precepts and close community relationships have helped keep crime low and under control. The official and common language is Divehi, an Indo-European language related to Sinhalese, the language of Sri Lanka. The written script is called Thaana and is written from right to left. English is used widely in commerce and increasingly as the medium of instruction in government schools. Some social stratification exists on the islands. It is not rigid, since rank is based on varied factors, including occupation, wealth, Islamic virtue, and family ties. Members of the social elite are concentrated in Malé. Outside of the service industry, this is the only location where the foreign and domestic populations are likely to interact. The tourist resorts are not on islands where the natives live, and casual contacts between the two groups are discouraged.

Culture

Main article: Culture of the Maldives
- Islam in Maldives
- Music of the Maldives

Miscellaneous topics

- Communications in the Maldives
- Currency of Maldives
- Economy of the Maldives
- Education in the Maldives
- Finance in Maldives
- Foreign relations of the Maldives
- List of birds of the Maldives
- Military of the Maldives
- Tourism in the Maldives
- Transportation in the Maldives
- Impact of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake
- 2005 Maldives civil unrest

External links

Official sites

- [http://www.maldivesinfo.gov.mv/ Republic of Maldives]
- [http://www.maldivesinfo.gov.mv/main/official_maldives_on_the_web.htm Official Maldives sites]

Other sites

- [http://maps.google.com/maps?ll=3.405762,73.168945&spn=10.624878,15.425903&t=k Maldives from Space] (Google Maps) Category:Indian Ocean atolls
- Category:Island nations Category:SAARC members Category:Archipelagoes zh-min-nan:Maldives ko:몰디브 ms:Maldives ja:モルディブ th:ประเทศมัลดีฟส์

Indonesia

The Republic of Indonesia is located in the Malay Archipelago, the world's largest archipelago, between Indochina and Australia, between the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It is the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world and the fourth most populous overall. It has had free elections since the 1998 Revolution which led to the resignation of President Suharto, who came to power in 1965.

History

Under the influences of Hinduism and Buddhism, several kingdoms formed on the islands of Sumatra and Java from the 7th to 14th century. The arrival of Arab traders from Gujarat, India, later brought Islam, which became the dominant religion in many parts of the archipelago after the collapse of Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms. When the Portuguese came in the early 16th century, they found a multitude of small states. These states were vulnerable to the Portuguese, and later other Europeans, who were in pursuit of dominating the spice trade. In the 17th century, the Dutch emerged as the most powerful of the Europeans, ousting the Spanish and Portuguese (except for their colony of Portuguese Timor on the island of Timor). The Dutch influence started with trading by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), a private enterprise, which gradually expanded its region of influence and its grip on political matters. Following the dissolution of the VOC in 1799, as well as the political instability from the Napoleonic Wars, the East Indies were awarded to the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815. From this time onward, the East Indies were officially ruled as colonies of the Dutch crown. Under the nineteenth-century Cultivation System (Cultuurstelsel), large plantations and forced cultivation were established on Java, finally creating the profit for the Netherlands that the VOC was unable to produce. In a more liberal period of colonial rule after 1870 the Cultivation System was abolished, and after 1901 the Dutch introduced the Ethical Policy, which included limited political reform and increased investment in the colony. During World War II, with the Netherlands under German occupation, in December 1941 Japan began a five prong campaign towards Java and the vital fuel supplies of the Dutch East Indies. Though Japan captured Java by March 1942, it was unable to find any national leader willing to cooperate with the Japanese government against the Dutch, eventually the Japanese commander ordered that Sukarno be released from his prison island and in July 1942 Sukarno arrived in Jakarta. Sukarno, with colleagues, cooperated with the Japanese occupiers. In 1945, with the war drawing to a close, Sukarno was made aware of an opportunity to declare an independence. Upon lobbying, Japan agreed that Sukarno established a committee to plan for independence. Sukarno, and Mohammad Hatta, declared independence on 17 August. In an effort to regain control of their previously occupied colonies, the Allies sent in their armies, together with the Netherlands' Army. Indonesia's war for independence lasted from 1945 until 27 December, 1949, when, under heavy international pressure, the Netherlands acknowledged Indonesia's independence. Sukarno became the country's first president, with Mohammad Hatta as the first vice president. See Indonesian National Revolution. It was not until 16 august 2005 that the Dutch government recognised 1945 as the country's year of independence and expressed its regrets over the Indonesian deaths caused by the Netherlands' Army. The 1950s and 1960s saw Sukarno's government aligning itself first with the emerging non-aligned movement and later with the socialist bloc. The 1960s saw Indonesia in a military confrontation against neighboring Malaysia, and increasing frustration over domestic economic difficulties. Army general Suharto became president in 1967 with the excuse of securing the country against an alleged Communist coup attempt against a weakening Sukarno. In the aftermath of Suharto's rise, hundreds of thousands people were killed or imprisoned in a backlash against alleged Communist supporters. Suharto's administration is commonly called the New Order era. Suharto invited major foreign investment into the country, which produced substantial, if uneven, economic growth. However, Suharto enriched himself and his family through widespread corruption and he was forced to step down amid massive popular demonstrations and a faltering economy by the Indonesian Revolution of 1998. In the period of 1998 to 2001, the country had three presidents: Bacharuddin Jusuf (BJ) Habibie, Abdurrahman Wahid and Megawati Sukarnoputri. In 2004 the largest one-day election in the world and Indonesia's first direct Presidential election was held and was won by Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono. Parts of northern Sumatra, particularly Aceh, were devastated by a massive earthquake and tsunami on 26 December 2004. See Impact of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake on Indonesia

Politics

The highest legislative body is the Majelis Permusyawaratan Rakyat (MPR, head: Hidayat Nur Wahid) or 'People's Consultative Assembly', consisting of the Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat (DPR, head: Agung Laksono) or People's Representative Council, elected for a five-year term, and the Dewan Perwakilan Daerah (DPD, head: Ginandjar Kartasasmita) or Regional Representatives Council. Following elections in 2004, the MPR became a bicameral parliament, with the creation of the DPD as its second chamber.

Provinces

Currently, Indonesia has 33 provinces (of those, 2 are special territories and 1 capital city territory). The provinces are subdivided in districts, which are in turn split up in sub-districts and municipalities. The provinces are: Bali, Bangka-Belitung, Banten, Bengkulu, Central Java, Central Kalimantan, Central Sulawesi, East Java, East Kalimantan, East Nusa Tenggara, South Sumatra, Gorontalo, Jambi, Lampung, Maluku, North Maluku, North Sulawesi, North Sumatra, Papua (Irian Jaya), Riau, Riau Kepulauan, South East Sulawesi, South Kalimantan, South Sulawesi, West Irian Jaya, West Java, West Kalimantan, West Nusa Tenggara, West Sulawesi, West Sumatra The special territories (daerah istimewa) are Aceh (or Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam) and Yogyakarta. Special territories have more autonomy from the central government than other territories, and as a result they have unique legislative privileges: the Acehnese government has the right to create an independent legal system and instituted a form of sharia (Islamic Law) in 2003; Yogyakarta remains a sultanate whose sultan (currently the wildly popular Sri Sultan Hamengkubuwono X) is the territory's de facto governor for life. The capital city territory is Jakarta. Though Jakarta is a single city, it is administered much as any other Indonesian province. For example, Jakarta has a governor (instead of a mayor), and is divided into several sub-regions with their own administrative systems. East Timor was a province of Indonesia from its annexation in 1976 until Indonesia relinquished sovereignty in 1999. Following a period of transitional administration by the UN, it became an independent state in 2002.

Geography

2002 Indonesia's 18,108 islands, of which about 6,000 are inhabited, are scattered around the equator, giving the country a tropical climate. The largest populated islands are Java, one of the most densely populated regions on Earth, where about half of the population lives, Sumatra, Borneo (shared with Malaysia and Brunei), New Guinea (shared with Papua New Guinea) and Sulawesi. The country borders Malaysia on the island of Borneo (Indonesian: Kalimantan), Papua New Guinea on the island of New Guinea and East Timor on the island of Timor. In addition to the capital city of Jakarta, principal Indonesian cities of high population include Surabaya, Bandung, Medan, Palembang, and Semarang. Its location on the edges of tectonic plates, specifically the Pacific, Eurasian, and Australian, means Indonesia is frequently hit by earthquakes and the resulting tsunamis. Indonesia is also rich in volcanoes, the most famous being the now vanished Krakatau (Krakatoa), which was located between Sumatra and Java. Flora and fauna differ markedly between Kalimantan, Bali, and western islands on the one hand and Sulawesi, Lombok, and islands further to the east on the other hand. This ecological boundary has been called the Wallace line after its discoverer. The line is often given as the boundary between Asia and Australasia, as such making Indonesia a bicontinental country. See also: Map of Asia

Economy

Indonesia's economy suffered greatly in the late 1990s, in part as a result of the financial crisis that struck most of Asia at the time. The economy has stabilized somewhat since then. The country has extensive natural resources outside of Java, including crude oil, natural gas, tin, copper and gold. Indonesia is the world's second largest exporter of natural gas, though it has recently become a net importer of crude oil. Major agricultural products include rice, tea, coffee, spices and rubber. Indonesia's major trading partners are Japan, the United States and the surrounding nations of Singapore, Malaysia and Australia. The central bank of Indonesia is Bank Indonesia [http://www.bi.go.id] The economy is now undergoing a process of rebuilding after the tsunami that struck in December of 2004.

Demographics

Indonesia's population can be roughly divided into two groups. The west of the country is Asian and the people are mostly Malay, while the east is more Pacific and people on New Guinea are Papuan, with roots in the islands of Melanesia. There are, however, many more subdivisions, which is logical given the fact that Indonesia spans an area the size of Europe or the USA and that it consists of many islands that to a large degree had their own separate development. Many Indonesians identify with a more specific ethnic group that is often linked to language and regional origins; examples of these are Javanese, Sundanese, or Batak. But there are also quite different groups within many islands, such as Borneo, with its Dayak and Punan, who have different lifestyles and skintones. Most Indonesians speak a local language (bahasa daerah) as their first tongue, but the official national language, Indonesian (locally called Bahasa Indonesia or simply Bahasa, meaning language) is almost universally taught in schools and is spoken by nearly every Indonesian. Originally a lingua franca for most of the region, including present-day Malaysia (and thus closely related to Malay), it was accepted by the Dutch as the de facto language for the colony and declared the official language after independence. The formerly large, influential Eurasian community (locally known as Indos) has largely left the country for the Netherlands, California and Australia, although a few still remain in Indonesia and are highly esteemed models and soap opera stars. There are also serious ethnic tensions in Indonesia, predominately between Indonesians of Chinese ethnicity and the Pribumi peoples, who are natives of Indonesia. The riotings in Jakarta in 1997 and 1998 highlight this recurring tension. Ethnic relations are strained mostly due to the high level of economic power that the Chinese-Indonesians have relative to the Pribumi peoples, which in turn propels anti-Chinese sentiment. Positions of power and influence in the business sphere are consistently held by ethnic Chinese Indonesians. The Indonesian government is attempting to remedy this problem, but due to widespread corruption and discontent experienced by the poorer citizens of Indonesia ethnic harmony is slow in coming. Corruption, collusion, and nepotism which characterized Suharto's presidency clearly define the origins of Indonesia’s ethnic tensions today. Islam is Indonesia's main religion, with almost 88% of all Indonesians declared as Muslim according to the 2000 religious census, making Indonesia the most populous Muslim-majority nation in the world. Prior to the arrival of the Abrahamic faiths of Christianity and Islam in the Malay Archipelago, the popular beliefs in region had been thoroughly influenced by Indic religious philosophy through Hinduism and Buddhism. After independence syncretism and intermarriage has decreased somewhat and religious divides sharpened, leading to communal violence in many of the eastern islands as well as in Java. Although Islam was once mainly practiced in Java and parts of Sumatra, the transmigration program has increased the number of Muslims living in Bali, Borneo, the Celebes, the Moluccas, and Papua. The remaining population is 8% Christian (of which roughly three quarters are Protestant, with the remainder mainly Catholic, and a substantial charismatic minority), 3% Hindu and 1% Buddhist with small communities of Jews. Indonesians are required to declare themselves as one of these official religions. As a result, many Indonesian "Muslims" are non-practicing, follow Indonesia's animist traditions (a fact that the government strenuously denies), or are entirely secular.

Culture

Art forms in Indonesia have been influenced by several cultures. The famous Javanese and Balinese dances, for example, contain aspects of Hindu culture and mythology. Also well-known are the Javanese and Balinese wayang kulit shadow theatre shows, displaying several mythological events. Several islands are famous for their batik and ikat cloth. Silat is a unique martial art originating from the archipelago.

Miscellaneous topics

- Agama Hindu Dharma
- Communications in Indonesia
- Foreign relations of Indonesia
- Hinduism in Southeast Asia
- Indonesian calendars
- Indonesian car number plates
- Indonesian Chinese
- Islam in Indonesia
- Islands of Indonesia
- List of famous Indonesians
- Military of Indonesia
- Music of Indonesia
- Public holidays in Indonesia
- Transportation in Indonesia
- Indonesian Civil War
- History of Indonesia

External links

Official sites (owned and operated by the government of Indonesia and its agencies)
- [http://www.antara.co.id/ Antara] — National News Agency
- [http://www.bi.go.id/ Bank Indonesia] — Indonesian Central Bank
- [http://www.info-ri.com/ Info-RI] — National Information Portal (in Indonesian)
- [http://www.deplu.go.id/?language=en&embassy=1& List of Indonesian embassies and consulates worldwide] (Department of Foreign Affairs)
- [http://www.indonesia.go.id/ National Portal of Republic of Indonesia] (in Indonesian)
- [http://www.rri-online.com/ RRI] — National Radio Network
- [http://www.tvri.co.id/ TVRI] — National Television Network (in Indonesian) Other sites (not owned nor operated by the government of Indonesia and its agencies)
-
- [http://www.business-indonesia.com/ Business Indonesia]
- [http://www.kompas.com/ Kompas] - Indonesia's most widely circulated Newspaper (in Indonesian)
- [http://www2.iisg.nl/indoc/ INDOC Database on Indonesian Labour]
- [http://www.indonesia-house.org/ Indonesia House] (in English and in Dutch)
- [http://www.insideindonesia.org/ Inside Indonesia Journal]
- [http://www.aseannewsnetwork.com/indonesia.html News from Indonesia] (in English and in Indonesian) Category:ASEAN member states Category:Island nations Category:Republics Category:Southeast Asian countries Category:Bicontinental countries zh-min-nan:Ìn-nî ko:인도네시아 ms:Indonesia ja:インドネシア simple:Indonesia th:ประเทศอินโดนีเซีย

Purchasing power parity

In economics, purchasing power parity (PPP) is an estimate of the exchange rate required to equalise the purchasing power of different currencies, given the prices of goods and services in the countries concerned. PPP exchange rates are used for a number of purposes, most notably to compare the standard of living of two or more countries. It is necessary because comparing the gross domestic products using market exchange rates does not accurately measure differences in income and consumption. Market exchange rates fluctuate widely, and the purchasing power parity hypothesis suggests that the long run equilibrium value is that which yields purchasing power parity. Estimation of purchasing parity is complicated by the fact that countries do not simply differ in a uniform price level; rather, the difference in food prices may be greater than the difference in housing prices or in the opposite direction of the difference in entertainment prices. Therefore, it is necessary to compare the cost of baskets of goods and services using a price index. This is a difficult task, since purchasing patterns and even the goods available to purchase differ across countries. It is necessary to make complex adjustments for differences in the quality of goods and services, a task undertaken by the International Comparisons Project. Additional statistical difficulties arise with multilateral comparisons when (as is usually the case) more than two countries are to be compared. The differences between PPP and real exchange rates can be significant. For example, GDP per capita in China is about USD 1,400, while on a PPP basis, it is ca. USD 6,200. At the other extreme, Japan's nominal GDP per capita is ca. USD 37,600, but its PPP figure is only USD 31,400.

Explanation

PPP Spot exchange rates between the US and UK should be : S = P$ / P£ ($/£) If the actual spot rate is > S, it would mean that the £ is over-valued and the $ is undervalued, relative to PPP If the actual spot rate is < S, it would mean that the $ is over-valued and the £ is undervalued, relative to PPP Eg. :S (per PPP) = 1.5 $/£ :S (Actual spot rate) = 1.8 $/£ This would indicate that PPP suggests, 1 £ should buy you only 1.5 $. However in the actual market you can buy 1.8 $ (i.e., more $s) using 1 £. Thus, the £ is over-valued(i.e., the £ is giving you more $s, than is suggested by the PPP) vs. the $, OR the $ is under-valued vs. the £

Method

The PPP method considers a bundle of goods, then calculates the price of this bundle in each country (using the country's local currency.) To calculate the exchange rate between two currencies, one takes the ratio of the prices. A simple example of a measure of absolute PPP is the Big Mac index popularised by The Economist, which looks at the prices of a Big Mac burger in McDonald's restaurants in different countries. If a Big Mac costs USD 4 in the US and GBP 3 in Britain, the PPP exchange rate would be £3 for $4. In the same way, if a Big Mac or any basket of goods costs $4 in the US, the PPP exchange rate is always GBP£3 for $4. The Economist does not attach any special significance to the Big Mac, beyond it being a well-known good whose price is easily tracked in many countries.

Relative PPP

Relative PPP is concerned with change of price levels over different periods, also known as inflation rate. The equation looks like

\frac=\frac

, where

S_t

is the spot rate and

P_t

is the price in period t (foreign values are marked by an asterisk). The change in the exchange rate is determined by price level changes in both countries. For example, if prices in the United States rise by 3% and prices in the European union rise by 1% the PPP of the USD has to depreciate by 2% compared to the PPP of the EUR (or alternatively the EUR will appreciate by 2%).

PPP equalization and the law of one price

The law of one price states that prices of traded goods will equalize in the absence of tariffs, other barriers to trade and prohibitively high shipping rates. The naïve PPP hypothesis is that free trade of goods should revert exchange rates to their PPP values. However, econometric analysis rejects this hypothesis, and gives a better prediction of the PPP/exchange rate relationship (the CPI) based on relative GDPs. Neo-classical economics includes Balassa-Samuelson effect theory, which explains the PPP model adjustment giving the equilibrium CPI. For more discussion, see discussion and clarification of PPP.

Application

A common measure of the standard of living is the per capita Gross Domestic Product, which is calculated by dividing the GDP of a country by its population. In order to compare the standard of living in two nations, one first needs to express these numbers in the same currency. Using actual exchange rates when making these comparisons can give a very misleading picture of living standards. The PPP method is used to as an alternative. For example, if the value of the Mexican peso falls by half compared to the US dollar, the Gross Domestic Product measured in dollars will also halve. However, this exchange rate results from international trade and financial markets. It does not necessarily mean that Mexicans are any poorer; if incomes and prices measured in pesos stay the same, they will be no worse off assuming that imported goods are not essential to the quality of life of individuals. Measuring income in different countries using PPP exchange rates helps to avoid this problem. PPP exchange rates are especially useful when official exchange rates are artificially manipulated by governments. Countries with strong government control of the economy sometimes enforce official exchange rates that make their own currency artificially strong. By contrast, the currency's black market exchange rate is artificially weak. In such cases a PPP exchange rate is likely the most realistic basis for economic comparison.

Examples

West and Central African Franc

During 2003 the US Dollar bought on average about 550 CFA franc. Because of a difference in the perceived "purchasing power parity" within some of the regions using the CFA franc, their purchasing power parity exchange rate differed like this (lower is stronger parity): Cameroon 240, Central African Republic 166, Chad 172, Republic of the Congo 677, Equatorial Guinea 114, Gabon 413, Benin 273, Burkina Faso 167.

GDP of China

The CIA uses the purchase power parity method in its calculations of Gross National Product [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/fields/2001.html]. By this measure the People's Republic of China has the second largest economy in the world, at $7.262 trillion (2004 est.) ([http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html CIA methodology for PPP]).

PPP: clarification and discussion

The main reasons why PPP does not perfectly reflect standards of living are
- PPP numbers can vary with the specific basket of goods used, making it a rough estimate.
- Preferences and choices can vary from country to country. Goods then differ in their contribution to welfare.
- International competitiveness is mainly affected by the exchange rate and not by PPP.
- Differences in quality of goods are not sufficiently reflected in PPP. PPP calculations are often used to measure poverty rates. For problems with this methodology, see [http://www.columbia.edu/~sr793/count.pdf How Not To Count The Poor].

Range and quality of goods

The goods that the currency has the "power" to purchase are a basket of goods of different types: # Local, non-tradable goods and services (like electric power) that are produced and sold domestically. # Tradable goods such as non-perishable commodities that can be sold on the international market (e.g. diamonds). The more a product falls into category 1 the further its price will be from the currency exchange rate. (Moving towards the PPP exchange rate.) Conversely, category 2 products tend to trade close to the currency exchange rate. (For more details of why, see: Penn effect). More processed and expensive products are likely to be tradable, falling into the second category, and drifting from the PPP exchange rate to the currency exchange rate. Even if the PPP "value" of the Chinese currency is five times stronger than the currency exchange rate, it won't buy five times as much of internationally traded goods, but non-traded goods like housing, services ("haircuts"), and domestically produced rice. The relative price differential between tradables and non-tradables from high-income to low-income countries is a consequence of the Balassa-Samuelson effect, and gives a big cost advantage to labour intensive production of tradable goods in low income countries (like China), as against high income countries (like Switzerland). The corporate cost advantage is nothing more sophisticated than access to cheaper workers, but because the pay of those workers goes further in low-income countries than high, the relative pay differentials (inter-country) can be sustained for longer than would be the case otherwise. (This is another way of saying that the wage rate is based on average local productivity, and that this is below the per capita productivity that factories selling tradable goods to international markets can achieve. This is sometimes called exploitation.) An equivalent cost benefit comes from non-traded goods that can be sourced locally (nearer the PPP-exchange rate than the nominal exchange rate in which receipts are paid). These act as a relatively cheaper factor of production than is available to factories in richer countries.

Difficulties with PPP comparisons in welfare economics

While using PPP exchange rates for income comparison is an improvement over using nominal (currency) exchange rates, it is still imperfect, and comparisons using the PPP method can still be misleading. Comparing standards of living using the PPP method implicitly assumes that the real value placed on goods is the same in different countries. In reality, what is considered a luxury in one culture could be considered a necessity in another. The PPP method does not account for this. (This is not primarily a flaw in the exchange rate methodology, as cultural and interpersonal differences in utility functions are a more fundamental microeconomic problem.) A PPP exchange rate varies depending on the choice of goods used for the index (CPI). Hence, it is possible to deliberately or accidentally bias a PPP exchange rate by the choice of a bundle. Indeed, it may be hard to construct equivalent representative bundles for the consumption habits of very different societies. PPP could also have difficulty accounting for differences in quality between goods in one country and equivalent goods in another, see: consumer price index. Even if a good PPP is used, GDP per capita is still a measure of the economic output of the whole economy, not a direct measure of the mean or median person's quality of life. Other factors such as the standards of homes and schools, access to public services, the extent of pollution, and strength of consumer protection laws are hard to quantify and generally not fully reflected in the GDP. Even a PPP-adjusted measure of GDP per capita must be used with caution, for all the usual reasons that the GDP figure itself is limited (for instance, its inability to capture the surplus between subjective value and payment price). For example, in 2002, the nominal GDP per capita in Japan was about US$40,000, while the equivalent PPP into a US goods basket was estimated at $27,000. In the US, GDP per capita was about $36,400 (nominal and real if based on 2002 dollars). This means that the average US citizen could enjoy slightly more consumption than the average Japanese (vastly more if private saving is removed from consumption income). However, it does not necessarily follow, that this implies a "higher standard of living" in the sense of "enjoying life" more; the US has higher crime rates and less social cohesion than Japan, while Japan has much less physical space per person and arguably less individual freedom. Ultimately, the quality of life will depend on subjective judgement and individual preferences. Per capita income also does not take into account inequalities in wealth distribution.

Difficulties with PPP in country comparisons

The ability of PPP-adjusted GDP to describe economy's ability to trade is limited by differences in:
- Infrastructure
- Barriers to trade; e.g., Tariffs, sanctions and duties
- Transportation costs
- The difference in the PPP exchange rate and the nominal (see: Penn effect.)

Clarification to PPP Numbers of the IMF

The GDP number for all reporting areas are one number in the reporting areas local currency. Therefore, in the local currency the PPP and market (or government) exchange rate is always 1.0 to its own currency, so the PPP and market exchange rate GDP number is always per definition the same for any duration of time, anytime, in that areas currency. The only time the PPP exchange rate and the market exchange rate can differ is when the GDP number is converted into another currency. Only because of different base numbers (because of for example "current" or "constant" prices, or an annualized or averaged number) are the USD to USD PPP exchange rate not 1.0, see the IMF data here: [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2004/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=1980&ED=2005&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=111&S=NGDP_R-NGDP-NGDPD-NGDPRPC-NGDPPC-NGDPDPC-PPPWGT-PPPEX-PPPPC&CMP=0&x=59&y=15]. The PPP exchange rate is 1.023 from 1980 to 2002, and the "constant" and "current" price is the same in 2000, because that's the base year for the "constant" (inflation adjusted) currency.

Clarification to PPP equalization

PPP equalization fails on many counts. The exchange rate only reflects traded goods in contrast to non-traded ones. Also, currencies are traded for purposes other than trade in goods and services, e.g., to buy capital assets whose prices vary more than those of physical goods. Also, different interest rates, speculation, hedging or interventions by central banks can influence the foreign-exchange market.

External links

- [http://www.economist.com/markets/Bigmac/ Big Mac Index] (The Economist)
- [http://www.economist.com/countries/ Countries] (The Economist)
- [http://fx.sauder.ubc.ca/PPP.html Explanations from the U. of British Columbia]
- [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2004/02/data/dbcoutm.cfm?SD=2003&ED=2003&R1=1&R2=1&CS=3&SS=2&OS=C&DD=0&OUT=1&C=914-446-612-666-614-672-311-946-213-137-911-962-193-674-122-676-912-548-313-556-419-678-513-181-316-682-913-684-124-273-339-921-638-948-514-686-218-688-963-518-616-728-223-558-516-138-918-353-748-196-618-278-522-692-622-694-156-142-624-449-626-564-628-283-228-853-924-288-233-293-632-566-636-964-634-182-238-453-662-968-960-922-423-714-935-862-128-716-611-456-321-722-243-965-248-718-469-724-253-576-642-936-643-961-939-813-644-199-819-184-172-524-132-361-646-362-648-364-915-732-134-366-652-734-174-144-328-146-258-463-656-528-654-923-336-738-263-578-268-537-532-742-944-866-176-369-534-744-536-186-429-925-178-746-436-926-136-466-343-112-158-111-439-298-916-927-664-846-826-299-542-582-443-474-917-754-544-698-941&S=NGDP-PPPEX&CMP=0&x=61&y=16 PPP US dollar exchange rates (IMF)]
- The most widely used PPP exchange rate come from the Penn World Tables at the [http://pwt.econ.upenn.edu Center for International Comparison] in Pennsylvania, USA. Category:Economic indicators Category:International trade Category:International economics ko:구매력평가 ja:購買力平価説

Population

] :For the use of the word population in statistics, see statistical population. In sociology and biology, a population is the collection of people, or organisms of a particular species, living in a given geographic area. In biology, plant and animal populations are studied, in particular, in a branch of ecology known as population biology, and in population genetics. In population dynamics, size, age and sex structure, mortality, reproductive behaviour, and growth of a population are studied. In biology, an isolated population denotes a breeding group whose members breed mostly or solely among themselves, usually as a result of physical isolation, although biologically they could breed with any members of the species. Meta-population is a group of sub-populations in a given area, where the individuals of the various sub-populations are able to cross uninhabitable areas of the region. Biological dispersal is one of the key elements affecting in such populations. Demography is the study of human populations. Various aspects of human behavior in populations are studied in sociology, economics, and geography. Study of populations is almost always governed by the laws of probability, and the conclusions of the studies may thus not always be applicable to some individuals. This odd factor may be reduced by statistical means, but such a generalization may be too vague to imply anything. Demography is used extensively in marketing, which relates to economic units, such as retailers, to potential customers. For example, Starbucks, a coffee shop company that wants to sell to a younger audience, looks at the demographics of an area to be able to appeal to this younger audience.

Population density

coffee Population density is measured by dividing the number of individuals by the area of the region in which they live. Some observers of human societies believe that the concept of carrying capacity also applies to the human population of the Earth, and that unchecked population growth can result in a "Malthusian catastrophe." Others dispute this view. The graph to the right depicts logistic growth of population. Populate, as a verb, means the process of populating a geographic area, as by procreation or immigration. The countries with the highest population density are microstates: Monaco, Singapore, the Vatican City, and Malta. Among larger-sized countries, Japan has one of the highest population densities.

Population pyramid

Japan The age and gender distribution of a population within a given nation or region is commonly represented by means of a population pyramid. This is a triangular distribution with the portion of the population along the horizontal X-axis and the 5-year age grouping along the vertical Y-axis. Male population is shown to the left of the vertical axis and female to the right. This type of chart displays the development of a population over a period of time. Nations with low infant mortality and high longevity will display a more rectangular shape as a majority of the population living to old age. The converse will have a more pyramidal shape with a wide base, reflecting higher infant mortality and greater risk of early death.

Underpopulation

In biology, a rarely occurring situation in which a group of individuals of a species appear in a new, inhabitable area suitable for more individuals, and begin to populate it. This may also happen if individuals of a species have been transferred to new areas on purpose or by accident. Ecological niches are usually populated, but evolution of a species may enable it to overcome the difficulties encountered in an initially hostile environment.

Overpopulation

evolution The world's human population is currently growing by more than 75 million people per year. About half the world lives in nations with sub-replacement fertility, and population growth in those countries is due to immigration. Overpopulation can result from increases in births and survival rates, or from an unsustainable use and depletion of resources. Advances in technology can reduce the threat of overpopulation by making new resources available, or by increasing the productivity of existing resources. In biology, a classic example of an overpopulation are the lemmings in Lapland, which procreate over the years to such densities, that a great part of the population is forced to wander to inhospitable areas. Nowadays, this happens usually in less dramatic ways than in the past, one reason probably being that the food supply of lemmings is shared with an increased number of reindeer in Lapland.

Population control

Population control is the practice of curtailing population increase, usually by reducing the birth rate. Surviving records from Ancient Greece document the first known examples of population control. These include the colonization movement, which saw Greek outposts being built across the Mediterranean and Black Sea basins to accommodate the excess population of individual states. An important example of mandated population control is China's one-child policy, in which having more than one child is made extremely unattractive. This has led to allegations that practices like infanticide, forced abortions, and forced sterilization are used as a result of the policy. In ecology, population control is on occasions considered to be done solely by predators, diseases, parasites, and environmental factors, though at many times human effects on animal and plant populations are also considered. Migrations of animals may be seen as a natural way of population control, for the food on land is more abundant on some seasons. The area of the migrations' start is left to reproduce the food supply for large mass of animals next time around. See also immigration.

Population decline

Population decline is a fall in a region's population. It can be caused by sub-replacement fertility or heavy emigration, or more dramatically disease, famine, or war. Or most often by a combination of the factors. In the past population decline was mostly observed due to disease. In recent years, the population of Russia and seventeen other ex-Communist countries has begun to decline (1995-2005). The Black Death in Europe, the arrival of Old World diseases to the Americas, or the Irish Potato Famine (1845-1849), all caused massive population declines. In biology, population decline of a species is usually described as a result of gradually worsening environmental factors, such as prolonged drought or loss of inhabitable areas for the studied species.

Population ageing

Population ageing occurs when the fertility rate declines. This means that, for a period of time, the ratio of old to young will be higher than average. It also occurs due to increasing life expectancy. Japan and Western Europe are the two regions which are most confronted by severe population ageing in the near future. The second largest expenditure of most governments is education and these expenses will fall with an ageing population. However older people tend to be the section of the population most concerned about crime and most insistent on more (and more expensive) law and order.

Population transfer

biological aspects, see introduced species Population transfer is a term referring to a policy by which a state forces the movement of a large group of people out of a region, most frequently on the basis of their ethnicity or religion. This has occured in India and Pakistan, between Turkey and Greece, and in Eastern Europe after the Second World War. Other movements in population are caused by immigration, such as the immigration from Europe to European colonies in the Americas, Africa, Australia and other places.

Population bomb

A best-selling work, The Population Bomb (1968) by Paul R. Ehrlich predicted disaster for humanity due to overpopulation and the "population explosion". A "population bomb," as defined in the book, requires three things: a rapid rate of change; a limit of some sort; and delays in perceiving the limit. The book's specific prediction that "in the 1970s and 1980s hundreds of millions of people will starve to death" did not come to pass, however, due for the most part to the efforts of Norman Borlaug's "Green Revolution" of the 1960s. It was later shown by Keith Greiner (1994) that Ehrlich's projections could not possibly have held the scrutiny of time, because Ehrlich applied the financial compound interest formula to population growth. Using two sets of assumptions based on Ehrlich's hypothesis, it was shown that the theorized wild growth in population and subsequent scarcity of resources could not have occurred on Ehrlich's time schedule.

World population

According to estimates published by the United States Census Bureau, the world population at the beginning of December 2005 was about 6,483,600,000. The United Nations Population Fund designated October 12, 1999 as the approximate day on which world population reached six billion. This was about 12 years after world population reached five billion, in 1987.

Countries by population

About 4 billion of the world's nearly 6.5 billion people live in Asia. Seven of the world's ten largest countries by population are in Asia(although Russia is also located in Europe). However, a large population is not the same thing as economic size, and the United States, which has a much smaller population than India or China, has a much larger economy.

External links

- Phishare.org (2005). [http://www.phishare.org Population and Health InfoShare]. Retrieved February 13, 2005.
- [http://www.prb.org Population Reference Bureau] (2005). Retrieved February 13, 2005.
- Populationworld.com (2005). [http://www.populationworld.com/ Population World: Population of World]. Retrieved February 13, 2004.
- United Nations (2004). [http://www.un.org/esa/population/ Population Division], Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved February 13, 2004.
- United States Census Bureau (2005). [http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbrank.pl Census Bureau - Countries Ranked by Population]. Retrieved February 13, 2005.
- PopulationData.net (2005). [http://www.populationdata.net PopulationData.net - Informations and maps about populations around the world]. Retrieved March 4, 2005.
- World Population Clock (French) [http://www.worldpopclock.com WorldPopClock.com - World population clock].
- [http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/popclockworld.html World Population Clock (English) - US Census] Category:Ecology Category:Sociology Category:Population zh-min-nan:Jîn-kháu ko:인구 ja:人口 simple:Population th:ประชากร

1 E9

This list compares various sizes of positive numbers, including counts of things, dimensionless numbers and probabilities.

Smaller than 10^-36

10^-36

10^-33

10^-30

10^-27

10^-24

ISO: yocto - y

10^-21

ISO: zepto - z

10^-18

ISO: atto - a

10^-15

ISO: femto - f

10^-12

One trillionth (short scale), One billionth (long scale) ISO: pico - p
- Math: Roughly the chances of getting heads 40 times in a row on a fair coin.

10^-9

(0.000 000 001; short scale: one billionth; long scale: one milliardth) ISO: nano - n
- Math - Lottery: The odds of winning the Grand Prize (matching all 6 numbers) in the US Powerball Multistate Lottery, with a single ticket, under the rules as at 2003, are 120,526,770 to 1 against, for a probability of 8 × 10^-9.
- Math - Lottery: The odds of winning the Jackpot (matching the 6 main numbers) in the UK National Lottery, with a single ticket, under the rules as at 2003, are 13,983,816 to 1 against, for a probability of 7 × 10^-8.

10^-6

(0.000 001; one millionth) ISO: micro - prefix Greek letter mu
- Math - Poker: The odds of being dealt a royal flush in poker are 649,739 to 1 against, for a probability of 1.5 × 10^-6
- Math - Poker: The odds of being dealt a straight flush (other than a royal flush) in poker are 72,192 to 1 against, for a probability of 1.4 × 10^-5
- Math - Poker: The odds of being dealt a four of a kind in poker are 4,164 to 1 against, for a probability of 2.4 × 10^-4

10^-3

(0.001; one thousandth) ISO: milli - m
- Math - Poker: The odds of being dealt a full house in poker are 693 to 1 against, for a probability of 1.4 × 10^-3
- Math - Poker: The odds of being dealt a flush in poker are 508 to 1 against, for a probability of 1.9 × 10^-3
- Math - Poker: The odds of being dealt a straight in poker are 254 to 1 against, for a probability of 4 × 10^-3
- Phys: α = 0.007 297 352 533(27), the fine structure constant

10^-2

(0.01; one hundredth)
- BioMed - HIV: About 1.2% of all 15–49 year-old humans were infected with HIV at the end of 2001
- Math - Lottery: The odds of winning any prize in the UK National Lottery, with a single ticket, under the rules as at 2003, are 54 to 1 against, for a probability of about 0.018 (1.8%)
- Math - Poker: The odds of being dealt a three of a kind in poker are 46 to 1 against, for a probability of 0.021 (2.1%)
- Math - Lottery: The odds of winning any prize in the US Powerball Multistate Lottery, with a single ticket, under the rules as at 2003, are 36.06 to 1 against, for a probability of 0.028 (2.8%)
- Math - Poker: The odds of being dealt two pair in poker are 20 to 1 against, for a probability of 0.048 (4.8%).
- Comp - Time: 0.01 seconds is equal to a jiffie.

10^-1

(0.1; one tenth) ISO: deci - d
- Math - Poker: The odds of being dealt only one pair in poker are about 5 to 2 against (2.37 to 1), for a probability of 0.42 (42%).
- Math - Poker: The odds of being dealt no pair in poker are nearly 1 to 2, for a probability of about 0.5 (50%)

10⁰

(1; one)
- Math: φ ≈ 1.6180339887, the golden ratio
- Math: e ≈ 2.718281828459, the base of the natural logarithm
- Math: π ≈ 3.14159265358979, the ratio of a circle's diameter to its circumference
- BioMed: 7 ± 2, in cognitive science, George A. Miller's estimate of the number of objects that can be simultaneously held in consciousness
- Astro: nine planets in the solar system

10¹

(10; ten) ISO: deca - da
- BioMed: there are 10 fingers on a pair of human hands
- Sport: In Olympic basketball, the roster limit for a team is 12 (and they are limited to wearing numbers 4 through 15).
- Math: 17 the second and last Genocchi prime.
- Lang: there are 26 letters in the Latin alphabet in the English language
- Sport: In NCAA basketball, players are not to wear digits above 5, and they are limited to one or two digits, making 42 distinct combinations (although 01, 02, 03, 04, and 05 typically aren't used). Since the roster limit is typically around 12, this doesn't present that much of a problem.
- Lit: 42, The Answer to Life, the Universe, and Everything.
- Med: The human life expectancy, in developed nations, is in the range of 75 years.

10²

(100; hundred) ISO: hecto - h
- Sport: In North American professional sports, players typically wear uniform numbers from 1 to 99. In some sports, 0 and 00 are also allowed, making 101 different combinations.
- Pol: There are 100 Senators in the United States Senate.
- Pol: There are 120 members in the Israeli Parliament (The Knesset).
- Comp: There are 128 characters in the ASCII character set.
- Geo: There were 191 member states of the United Nations as of 2003.
- Science: 373.16 kelvins (100 °C is the boiling point of water (H₂O).
- Lit: 546 kelvins (451 degrees Fahrenheit) is the ignition temperature of paper. Therefore, Ray Bradbury titled his dystopian novel about book burnings Fahrenheit 451.

10³

(1 000; thousand) ISO: kilo - k
- Lang: 2000–3000 letters on a typical typed page of text
- BioMed: the DNA of the simplest viruses has some 5000 base pairs.

10⁴

(10 000; ten thousand)
- BioMed: Each neuron in the human brain is estimated to connect to 10,000 others
- Lang: There are 20,000–40,000 distinct Chinese characters, depending on how you count them
- BioMed: Each human being is estimated to have 30,000 to 40,000 genes
- Records: As of July 2004, the largest number of decimal places of π that have been recited from memory - > 42000
- Math: 65537 is a Fermat prime

10⁵

(100 000; one hundred thousand)
- BioMed - Hairs on a head: The average human head has about 100,000–150,000 hairs
- Math: 110,000 - The approximate number of entries on The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences as of August 2005 [http://www.research.att.com/~njas/sequences/index.html]
- Lang: 267,000 words in James Joyce's Ulysses
- Geo: 338,200 population of the London Borough of Croydon in 1998
- Lang - English words: The New Oxford Dictionary of English claims to contain 350,000 definitions for English words
- Math: 365,596 solutions to n-Queens Problem for n = 14
- Lang: 564,000 words in War and Peace
- Info: As of November 2005, there are approximately 800,000 articles in the English Wikipedia
- Info: The FreeDB database has around [http://freedb.org/freedb_stats_server.php 1 750 000] entries as of June 2005

10⁶

(1 000 000; 1 million) ISO: mega - M
- Geo/Comp - Geographic places: The NIMA GEOnet Names Server contains approximately 3.88 million named geographical features outside the United States, with 5.34 million names. The USGS Geographic Names Information System claims to have almost 2 million physical and cultural geographic features within the United States.
- BioMed - Species: The World Resources Institute claims that approximately 1.4 million species have been named, out of an unknown number of total species (estimates range between 2 and 100 million species).
- Math - Chess: There are 2 279 184 solutions to n-Queens Problem for n = 15
- Math - Playing cards: There are 2 598 960 different 5-card poker hands that can be dealt from a standard 52-card deck.
- Info - Web sites: as of July 2003, the Netcraft web survey estimates that there are 42 million distinct web sites
- Info - Books: The British Library claims that it holds over 150 million items. The Library of Congress claims that it holds approximately 119 million items. See Gutenberg galaxy
- Math: 14,772,512 solutions to n-Queens Problem for n = 16
- Math: 95,815,104 solutions to n-Queens Problem for n = 17
- Math: 215,000,000 - The approximate number of mathematical constants collected on the Plouffe's Inverter as of August 2005 [http://pi.lacim.uqam.ca/eng/]
- Math: 275,305,224 is the number of 5x5 magic squares, not counting rotations and reflections. This result was found in 1973 by Richard Schroeppel. It is the third 91768409-gonal number.
- Geo: approx. 402,000,000 native speakers of English
- Astro - Cataloged stars: The Guide Star Catalog II has entries on 998,402,801 distinct astronomical objects

10⁹

(1 000 000 000; short scale: 1 billion; long scale: 1 milliard) ISO: giga - G
- Comp - Computational limit of a 32-bit CPU: 2 147 483 647 is equal to 2³¹-1, and as such is the largest number which can fit into a signed (two's complement) 32-bit integer on a computer, thus marking the upper computational limit of a 32-bit CPU such as Intel's Pentium-class computer chips.
- BioMed - Base pairs in the genome: approximately 3×10⁹ base pairs in the human genome
- Comp - Web pages: approximately 8 × 10⁹ web pages indexed by Google as of 2004
- Astro - Observable galaxies: between 1×10¹⁰ and 8×10¹⁰ galaxies in the observable (as of 2003) Universe
- BioMed - Bacteria in the human body: there are roughly 10¹⁰ bacteria in the human oral cavity [http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast01sep98_1.htm]
- BioMed - Neurons in the brain: approximately 10¹¹ neurons in the human brain
- Astro - Stars in our Galaxy: approximately 4 × 10¹¹ stars in the Milky Way galaxy
- Geo - India: 1,065,000,000 - Approximate population of India in 2003
- Geo - China: 1,300,000,000 - Approximate population of the People's Republic of China in 2004.
- Geo - World population: 6,378,000,000 - Estimated total midyear population for the world in 2004.
- Math: 4,294,967,296 - smallest number of the form (2^(2^n)) that does not produce a prime number when 1 is added.
- Comp: 4,294,967,296 - the number of bytes in 4 gibibytes; in computation, the 32-bit computers can directly access 2³² pieces of address space, this leads directly to the 4 gigabyte limit on main memory.
- Comp: 4,294,967,296 - total number of CMYK colors possible when using 8 bit integers for each color component. However, virtually unlimited colors are possible by using floats from 0 to 1 as color components, so this limit is less important than it might seem.
- Math: 2,147,483,647 is a Mersenne prime and a Zsigmondy number
- Math: 4,294,967,297 is a Fermat number and semiprime.
- Math: 27,704,267,971 and 27,704,267,977 are sexy primes.

10¹²

(1 000 000 000 000; short scale: 1 trillion; long scale: 1 billion) ISO: tera - T
- BioMed - Bacteria on the human body: the surface of the human body houses roughly 10¹² bacteria [http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast01sep98_1.htm]
- Math: 1.1
- 10¹² - The approximate number of known non-trivial zeros of Riemann zeta function as of August 2005 [http://www.zetagrid.net/servlet/service/statistic]
- BioMed - Cells in the human body: the human body consists of roughly 10¹⁴ cells
- Math - Known digits of pi: As of 2002, the number of known digits of pi was 1 241 100 000 000

10¹⁵

(1 000 000 000 000 000; short scale: 1 quadrillion; long scale: 1 billiard) ISO: peta - P
- BioMed - Bacteria in the human body: there are roughly 10¹⁵ bacteria in the human body ([http://science.nasa.gov/newhome/headlines/ast01sep98_1.htm] speaks of 10¹⁴), the overwhelming majority in the intestinal tract

10¹⁸

(1 000 000 000 000 000 000; short scale: 1 quintillion; long scale: 1 trillion) ISO: exa - E
- BioMed - Insects: It has been estimated that the insect population of the Earth comprises roughly 10¹⁸ insects.
- Comp - Computational limit of a 64-bit CPU: 9.22×10¹⁸ is equal to 2⁶³-1, and as such is the largest number which can fit into a signed (two's complement) 64-bit integer on a computer.
- Math - Rubik's Cube: There are 4.3×10¹⁹ different positions of a Rubik's Cube

10²¹

(1 000 000 000 000 000 000 000; see names of large numbers for naming of this and larger numbers) ISO: zetta - Z
- Geo - Grains of sand: all the world's beaches put together hold roughly 10²³ grains of sand. [http://astronomy.swin.edu.au/staff/gmackie/billions.html]
- Astro - Stars: 70 sextillion, was recently given by Australian astronomers as the number of stars visible from Earth by Telescope. It could also be called 70 million trillion or 70 billion billion. This estimate is based on galaxy counts and star estimates: [http://www.rednova.com/news/stories/1/2003/07/22/story004.html]
- Math: 146,361,946,186,458,562,560,000 is the fifth unitary perfect number.
- Chem: there are roughly 6.022×10²³ molecules in one mole of any substance (Avogadro's number)

10²⁴

ISO: yotta - Y
- Computing: Yottabyte (YB) is 10²⁴ bytes.
- Math: 2,833,419,889,721,787,128,217,599 is a Woodall prime.

10²⁷

- BioMed - Atoms in the human body: the average human body contains roughly 7×10²⁷ atoms, see [http://education.jlab.org/qa/mathatom_04.html]

10³⁰

10³³

- Math: 1,298,074,214,633,706,835,075,030,044,377,087 is a Carol prime

10³⁶

- Math: 170,141,183,460,469,231,731,687,303,715,884,105,727 is a double Mersenne prime

10³⁸

- Comp - Address range of IPv6: 3.4×10³⁸ is equal to 2¹²⁸, and is the theoretical maximum number of internet addresses that can be allocated under the IPv6 addressing system.

Larger than 10³⁹

- Cosmology: The Eddington-Dirac number is roughly 10⁴⁰.
- Physics:

e^2/Gm^2 \,

, the ratio of the electrical to the gravitational forces between two protons, is roughly 10⁴⁰.
- Math: 53,694,226,297,143,959,644,031,344,050,777,763,036,004,353 is a Pierpont prime
- Math: 393,050,634,124,102,232,869,567,034,555,427,371,542,904,833 is a Cullen prime
- Geo: About 10⁴⁷ molecules of water on Earth
- Geo: Earth consists of roughly 10⁵⁰ atoms
- Math: 359,334,085,968,622,831,041,960,188,598,043,661,065,388,726,959,079,837 is a Bell prime
- Math: 10⁶⁶ - The magnitude of the largest known prime factor found by ECM factorization as of August 2005 [http://www.loria.fr/~zimmerma/records/p66]
- Math: 475420437734698220747368027166749382927701417016557193662268716376935476241 is a Fibonacci prime
- Astro - Fundamental particles in the observable universe: various sources estimate the total number of fundamental particles in the observable universe in the range 10⁸⁰ to 10⁸⁵. However, these estimates are best regarded as guesswork.
- Math: 10¹⁰⁰, a googol
- Chess: Shannon number, 10¹²⁰, an estimation of the game-tree complexity of chess
- Math - Hist: Asankhyeya is equal to 10¹⁴⁰ in Ancient India
- Xiangqi: 10¹⁵⁰, an estimation of the game-tree complexity of xiangqi
- Math - Go: 10³⁶⁵, number of possible moves in the game of Go
- Math: 7068555 · 2¹²¹³⁰¹ − 1 is a Sophie Germain prime
- Math: 16869987339975 · 2¹⁷¹⁹⁶⁰ − 1 is a Chen prime
- Math: 16869987339975 · 2¹⁷¹⁹⁶⁰ ± 1 are twin primes
- Math: 34790!–1 is a factorial prime
- Math: 392113#+1 is a primorial prime
- Math: 10^7,816,229, order of magnitude of the largest known prime, as of August 2005. The exact value of that record prime is 2^25,964,951–1. Proving prime numbers with a thousand to several tens of thousands of decimal digits, depending on special form, can be done in minutes on modern computers.
- Math - Hist: 10^{80,000,000,000,000,000}, largest named number in Archimedes' Sand Reckoner
- Math: 10^googol (

10^

), a googolplex
- Math:

10^

, order of magnitude of an upper bound that occurred in a proof of Skewes
- Math:

10^

, order of magnitude of another upper bound in a proof of Skewes
- Math: Moser's number should appear somewhere in this section, but is difficult to calculate
- Math: Graham's number, probably the largest number seriously used in a mathematical proof, can be written as

f^(4)

; representation in powers of 10 would be impractical, for the definition of the number see the main article about it Note: To correctly interpret the last few entries, keep in mind that exponentiation is performed from right to left. For example, :

10^ \mbox 10^

External links

- Seth Lloyd's paper [http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0110141 Computational capacity of the universe] provides a number of interesting dimensionless quantities ko:수의 비교 ja:数量の比較 (数値)

Area

:This article explains the meaning of area as a physical quantity. The article area (geometry) is more mathematical. See also area (disambiguation). Area is a quantity expressing the size of a part of a surface. Surface area is the summation of the areas of the exposed sides of an object.

Units

Units for measuring surface area include: :square metre = SI derived unit :are = 100 square metres :hectare = 10,000 square metres :square kilometre = 1,000,000 square metres :square megametre = 10¹² square metres Imperial units, as currently defined from the metre: :square foot (plural square feet) = 0.09290304 square metres. :square yard = 9 square feet = 0.83612736 square metres :square perch = 30.25 square yards = 25.2928526 square metres :acre = 160 square perches or 43,560 square feet = 4046.8564224 square metres :square mile = 640 acres = 2.5899881103 square kilometres Old European area units, still in used in some private matters (e.g. land sale advertisements) :square fathom = 3.5967 square metres :cadastral moon(acre) = 1600� square fathoms = 5755 square metres The article Orders of magnitude links to lists of objects of comparable surface area.

Useful formulas

- Area of a rectangle (and, in particular, a square): length × width
- Area of a triangle: ½ × base × height
- Area of a disk: π × r²
- Area of an ellipse: π × a × b
- Area of a sphere: 4 × π × r² = π × d²
- Area of a trapezoid: If a and b are the two parallel sides and h is the distance (height) between the parallels, the area formula is as below: :

A=\frac(a+b)h

A=\frac

- Total surface area of a right circular cylinder: 2 × π × r × (h + r)
- Lateral surface area of a right circular cylinder: 2 × π × r × h
- Total surface area of a right circular cone: π × r × (l + r)
- Lateral surface area of a right circular cone: π × r × l

External links

- [http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/area.html Online Area Converter - convert between various units of area, such as square meter, hectare, rood, and so on]
- [http://www.unitconversion.org/unit_converter/area-v.html Interactive Area Conversion table - convert selected unit to all other units of area]
- [http://calc.skyrocket.de/en/ Online Unit Converter - Conversion of many different units]
- als:Fläche ja:面積 ko:면적 simple:Area th:พื้นที่ zh-min-nan:Bīn-chek

Indus Valley Civilisation

-Ghaggar river and their tributaries. The Mohenjo-daro ruins pictured above were once the center of this ancient society.]] The Indus Valley Civilization, 3300 BCE–1800 BCE, was an ancient civilization thriving along the lower Indus River and the Ghaggar-Hakra river in what is now Pakistan and western India. Among other names for this civilization is the Harappan Civilization of the Indus Valley, in reference to its first excavated city of Harappa.

Overview

The Indus Civilization is among the world's earliest civilizations, contemporary to the Bronze Age civilizations of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt. It peaked around 2500 BCE in the western part of South Asia, declined during the mid-2nd millennium BCE and was forgotten until its rediscovery in the 1920s by RD Banerjee. Geographically, it was spread over an area of some 1,260,000 km², comprising the whole of modern day Pakistan and parts of modern-day India and Afghanistan. There were Indus civilization settlements spread as far south as Mumbai, as far east as Delhi, as far west as the Iranian border, and as far north as the Himalayas. Thus there is an Indus Valley site on the Oxus river at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan (Kenoyer 1998:96) and the Indus Valley site Alamgirpur at the Hindon river is located only 28 km from Delhi (S.P. Gupta 1995:183). At its peak, the Indus Civilization may have had a population of well over five million. The Indus civilization is still poorly understood. Its very existence was forgotten until the 20th century. Its writing system remains undeciphered. Among the Indus civilization's mysteries are fundamental questions, including its means of subsistence and the causes for its sudden disappearance beginning around 1900 BCE. We do not know what language the people spoke. We do not know what they called themselves. All of these facts stand in stark contrast to what is known about its contemporaries, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. The native name of the Indus civilization may be preserved in the Sumerian Me-lah-ha, which Asko Parpola, editor of the Indus script corpus, identifies with the Dravidian Met-akam "high abode/country" (see also Proto-Dravidian). He further suggets that the Sanskrit word mleccha for "foreigner, barbarian, non-Aryan" may be derived from that name.

Settlements

Aryan To date, over 1,052 cities and settlements have been found, mainly in the general region of the Hakra-Ghaggar river and its tributaries. Among the settlements were the major urban centers of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, as well as Dholavira, Ganweriwala, Kalibanga, Lothal, and Rakhigarhi. Additionally, there is some disputed evidence indicative of another large river, now long dried up, running parallel and to the east of the Indus. The dried-up river beds overlap with the Hakra channel in Pakistan, and the seasonal Ghaggar river in India. Over 500 ancient sites belonging to the Indus Valley Civilization have been discovered along the Hakra-Ghaggar river and its tributaries (S.P. Gupta 1995: 183). In contrast to this, only 90 to 96 of the over 800 known Indus Valley sites have been discovered on the Indus and its tributaries. A section of scholars claim that this was a major river during the third and fourth millennia BCE, and propose that it may have been the Sarasvati River of the Rig Veda. Some of those who accept this hypothesis advocate designating the Indus Valley culture the "Sarasvati-Sindhu Civilization", Sindhu being the ancient name of the Indus River. Most archeologists dispute this view, arguing that the old and dry river died out during the mesolithic age at the latest, and was reduced to a seasonal stream thousands of years before the Vedic period.

Predecessors

The Indus civilization was predated by the first farming cultures in south Asia, which emerged in the hills of what is now called Balochistan, to the west of the Indus Valley. The best-known site of this culture is Mehrgarh, established around 6500 BCE. These early farmers domesticated wheat and a variety of animals, including cattle. Pottery was in use by around 5500 BCE. The Indus civilization grew out of this culture's technological base, as well as its geographic expansion into the alluvial plains of what are now the provinces of Sindh and Punjab in contemporary Pakistan and Northern India. By 4000 BCE, a distinctive, regional culture, called pre-Harappan, had emerged in this area. (It is called pre-Harappan because remains of this widespread culture are found in the early strata of Indus civilization cities.) Trade networks linked this culture with related regional cultures and distant sources of raw materials, including lapis lazuli and other materials for bead-making. Villagers had, by this time, domesticated numerous crops, including peas, sesame seeds, dates, and cotton, as well as a wide range of domestic animals, including the water buffalo, an animal that remains essential to intensive agricultural production throughout Asia today.

Emergence of Civilization

The first appearance of the Indus civilization was the early Harappan/Ravi Phase. This Ravi Phase, named after the nearby Ravi River, lasted from approximately 3300 BC, or even 3500 BC, to 2800 BC. This phase is related to the Hakra Phase, identified in the Ghaggar-Hakra River valley to the west, and predates the Kot Diji Phase (2800-2600 BC), named after a site in northern Sindh near Mohenjo-daro. Increasing knowledge of the Ravi and Kot Diji Phase occupations at Harappa, and of contemporary settlements throughout northwestern South Asia, permits glimpses of later Indus Civilization. Some of the most exciting discoveries in Ravi Phase levels have been of early writing. The origins of the Indus script-like signs dates from 3300-2800 BC. This would make the origins of writing in South Asia approximately the same time as in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia. [http://www.essays.cc/free_essays/a3/myv94.shtml] The civilization's mature Harappan period began from 2600 BC.

Cities

A sophisticated and technologically advanced urban culture is evident in the Indus Valley civilization. The quality of municipal town planning suggests knowledge of urban planning and efficient municipal governments which placed a high priority on hygiene. The streets of major cities such as Mohenjo-daro or Harappa were laid out in a perfect grid pattern, comparable to that of present day New York. The houses were protected from noise, odors, and thieves. As seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and the recently discovered Rakhigarhi, this urban plan included the world's first urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets. Houses opened only to inner courtyards and smaller lanes. The ancient Indus systems of sewage and drainage that were developed and used in cities throughout the Indus Empire were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the Middle East and even more efficient than those in some areas of modern Pakistan and India today. The advanced architecture of the Harappans is shown by their impressive dockyards, granaries, warehouses, brick platforms, and protective walls. The massive citadels of Indus cities that protected the Harappans from floods and attackers were larger than most Mesopotamian ziggurats. The purpose of the "Citadel" remains a matter of debate. In sharp contrast to this civilization's contemporaries, Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt, no large monumental structures were built. There is no conclusive evidence of palaces or temples—or, indeed, of kings, armies, or priests. Some structures are thought to have been granaries. Found at one city is an enormous well-built bath, which may have been a public bath. Although the "Citadels" are walled, it is far from clear that these structures were defensive. They may have been built to divert flood waters. Most city dwellers appear to have been traders or artisans, who lived with others pursuing the same occupation in well-defined neighborhoods. Materials from distant regions were used in the cities for constructing seals, beads, and other objects. Among the artifacts made were beautiful beads made of glazed stone called faïence. The seals have images of animals, gods, etc., and inscriptions. Some of the seals were used to stamp clay on trade goods, but they probably had other uses. Although some houses were larger than others, Indus civilization cities were remarkable for their apparent egalitarianism. For example, all houses had access to water and drainage facilities. One gets the impression of a vast middle-class society.

Science

The people of the Indus Civilization achieved great accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. They were among the first to develop a system of uniform weights and measures. Their measurements were extremely precise. Their smallest division, which is marked on an ivory scale found in Lothal, was approximately 1.704mm, the smallest division ever recorded on a scale of the Bronze Age. Harappan engineers followed the decimal division of measurement for all practical purposes, including the measurement of mass as revealed by their hexahedron weights. Brick sizes were in a perfect ratio of 4:2:1, and the decimal system was used. Weights were based on units of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, and 500, with each unit weighing approximately 28 grams, similar to the English ounce or Greek uncia, and smaller objects were weighed in similar ratios with the units of 0.871. Unique Harappan inventions include an instrument which was used to measure whole sections of the horizon and the tidal dock. In addition, they evolved new techniques in metallurgy, and produced copper, bronze, lead, and tin. The engineering skill of the Harappans was remarkable, especially in building docks after a careful study of tides, waves, and currents. In 2001, archaeologists studying the remains of two men from Mehrgarh, Pakistan made the startling discovery that the people of Indus Civilization, even from the early Harappan periods, had knowledge of medicine and dentistry. The physical anthropologist that carried out the examinations, Professor Andrea Cucina from the University of Missouri-Columbia, made the discovery when he was cleaning the teeth from one of the men.

Arts and Culture

Various sculptures, seals, pottery, gold jewelry, and anatomically detailed figurines in terracotta, bronze, steatite have been found at the excavation sites. A number of bronze, terracotta, and stone figurines of girls in dancing poses reveal the presence of some dance form. Sir John Marshall is known to have reacted with surprise when he saw the famous Indus bronze statuette of the slender-limbed "dancing girl" in Mohenjo-daro: :"… When I first saw them I found it difficult to believe that they were prehistoric; they seemed to completely upset all established ideas about early art. Modeling such as this was unknown in the ancient world up to the Hellenistic age of Greece, and I thought, therefore, that some mistake must surely have been made; that these figures had found their way into levels some 3000 years older than those to which they properly belonged. … Now, in these statuettes, it is just this anatomical truth which is so startling; that makes us wonder whether, in this all-important matter, Greek artistry could possibly have been anticipated by the sculptors of a far-off age on the banks of the Indus." A harp-like instrument depicted on an Indus seal and two shell objects found at Lothal indicate the use of stringed musical instruments. Seals have been found at Mohenjo-daro depicting a figure standing on its head, and one sitting cross-legged; perhaps the earliest indication, at least illustration, of the practice of yoga. A horned figure in a meditation pose (see image, Pashupati, below right) has been interpreted as one of the earliest depictions of the god Shiva.

Trade

The Indus civilization's economy appears to have depended significantly on trade, which was facilitated by major advances in transport technology. These advances included bullock-driven carts that are identical to those seen throughout South Asia today, as well as boats. Most of these boats were probably small, flat-bottomed craft, perhaps driven by sail, similar to those one can see on the Indus River today; however, there is secondary evidence of sea-going craft. Archaeologists have discovered a massive, dredged canal and docking facility at the coastal city of Lothal. Judging from the dispersal of Indus civilization artifacts, the trade networks, economically, integrated a huge area, including portions of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Persia, northern and central India, and Mesopotamia (see Meluhha).

Agriculture

The nature of the Indus civilization's agricultural system is still largely a matter of conjecture due to the limited amount of information surviving through the ages. Some speculation is possible, however. Indus civilization agriculture must have been highly productive; after all, it was capable of generating surpluses sufficient to support tens of thousands of urban residents who were not primarily engaged in agriculture. It relied on the considerable technological achievements of the pre-Harappan culture, including the plough. Still, very little is known about the farmers who supported the cities or their agricultural methods. Some of them undoubtedly made use of the fertile alluvial soil left by rivers after the flood season, but this simple method of agriculture is not thought to be productive enough to support cities. There is no evidence of irrigation, but such evidence could have been obliterated by repeated, catastrophic floods. The Indus civilization appears to contradict the hydraulic despotism hypothesis of the origin of urban civilization and the state. According to this hypothesis, cities could not have arisen without irrigation systems capable of generating massive agricultural surpluses. To build these systems, a despotic, centralized state emerged that was capable of suppressing the social status of thousands of people and harnessing their labor as slaves. It is very difficult to square this hypothesis with what is known about the Indus civilization. There is no evidence of kings, slaves, or forced mobilization of labor. It is often assumed that intensive agricultural production requires dams and canals. This assumption is easily refuted. Throughout Asia, rice farmers produce significant agricultural surpluses from terraced, hillside rice paddies, which result not from slavery but rather the accumulated labor of many generations of people. Instead of building canals, Indus civilization people may have built water diversion schemes, which—like terrace agriculture—can be elaborated by generations of small-scale labor investments. In addition, it is known that Indus civilization people practiced rainfall harvesting, a powerful technology that was brought to fruition by classical Indian civilization but nearly forgotten in the 20th century. It should be remembered that Indus civilization people, like all peoples in South Asia, built their lives around the monsoon, a weather pattern in which the bulk of a year's rainfall occurs in a four-month period. At a recently discovered Indus civilization city in western India, archaeologists discovered a series of massive reservoirs, hewn from solid rock and designed to collect rainfall, that would have been capable of meeting the city's needs during the dry season.

Writing or Symbol System

monsoon Main article: Indus script. It has long been claimed that the Indus Valley was the home of a literate civilization, but this has recently been challenged on linguistic and archaeological grounds. Well over 400 Indus symbols have been found on seals or ceramic pots and over a dozen other materials, including a 'signboard' that apparently once hung over the gate of the inner citadel of the Indus city of Dholavira. Typical Indus inscriptions are no more than four or five characters in length, most of which (aside from the Dholavira 'signboard') are exquisitely tiny; the longest on a single surface, which is less than 1 inch (2.54 cm) square, is 17 signs long; the longest on any object (found on three different faces of a mass-produced object) carries only 26 symbols. It has been recently pointed out that the brevity of the inscriptions is unparalleled in any known premodern literate society, including those that wrote extensively on leaves, bark, wood, cloth, wax, animal skins, and other perishable materials. Based partly on this evidence, a controversial recent paper by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel (2004)[http://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdf], which has been widely discussed in the world press (see external links), argues that the Indus system did not encode language, but was related instead to a variety of non-linguistic sign systems used extensively in the Near East. It has also been claimed on occasion that the symbols were exclusively used for economic transactions, but this claim leaves unexplained the appearance of Indus symbols on many ritual objects, many of which were mass produced in molds. No parallels to these mass-produced inscriptions are known in any other early ancient civilizations. Photos of many of the thousands of extant inscriptions are published in the Corpus of Indus Seals and Inscriptions (1987, 1991), edited by A. Parpola and his colleagues. Publication of a final third volume, which will reportedly republish photos taken in the 20s and 30s of hundreds of lost or stolen inscriptions, along with many discovered in the last few decades, has been announced for several years, but has not yet found its way into print. For now, researchers must supplement the materials in the Corpus by study of the tiny photos in the excavation reports of Marshall (1931), Mackay (1938, 1943), Wheeler (1947), or reproductions in more recent scattered sources.

Geography

The Indus valley was by main rivers, the Indus River. The Indus River was very important to Indus life. The river provided irrigation, and also created fertile land for farming. In the middle of India is the Deccan Plateau, which might have helped protect the Indus people from foriegn invaders. The Himalayas are also located near the Indus Valley, as is the Hindu Kush mountain range.

Decline, collapse and legacy

Around 1900 BC, signs of a gradual decline begin to emerge. People started to leave the cities. Those who remained were poorly nourished. By around 1800 BC, most of the cities were abandoned. In the aftermath of the Indus civilization's collapse, regional cultures emerged, to varying degrees showing the influence of the Indus civilization. In the formerly great city of Harappa, burials have been found that correspond to a regional culture called the Cemetery H culture. At the same time, the Ochre Coloured Pottery culture expands from Rajasthan into the Gangetic Plain. It is in this context of the aftermath of a civilization's collapse that the Indo-Aryan migration into northern India is discussed. In the early twentieth century, this migration was forwarded in the guise of an "Aryan invasion", and when the civilization was discovered in the 1920s, its collapse at precisely the time of the conjectured invasion was seen as an independent confirmation. In the words of the archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler, the Indo-Aryan war god Indra "stands accused" of the destruction. It is however far from certain whether the collapse of the IVC is a result of an Indo-Aryan migration. It seems rather likely that, to the contrary, the Indo-Aryan migration was as a result of the collapse, comparable with the decline of the Roman Empire and the incursions of relatively primitive peoples during the Migrations Period. A possible natural reason of the IVC's decline is connected with climate change. In 2600 BC, the Indus Valley was verdant, forested, and teeming with wildlife. It was wetter, too; floods were a problem and appear, on more than one occasion, to have overwhelmed certain settlements. As a result, Indus civilization people supplemented their diet with hunting. By 1800 BC, the climate is known to have changed. It became significantly cooler and drier. The crucial factor may have been the disappearance of substantial portions of the Ghaggar-Hakra river system. A tectonic event may have diverted the system's sources toward the Ganges Plain, though there is some uncertainty about the date of this event. Such a statement may seem dubious if one does not realize that the transition between the Indus and Gangetic plains amounts to a matter of inches. The region in which the river's waters formerly arose is known to be geologically active, and there is evidence of major tectonic events at the time the Indus civilization collapsed. Although this particular factor is speculative, and not generally accepted, the decline of the IVC, as with any other civilization, will have been due to a combination of a variety of reasons. In the course of the 2nd millennium BC, remnants of the IVC's culture will have amalgamated with that of other peoples, likely contributing to what eventually resulted in the rise of historical Hinduism. Judging from the abundant figurines depicting female fertility that they left behind, indicate worship of a Mother goddess (compare Shakti and Kali). IVC seals depict animals, perhaps as the object of veneration, comparable to the zoomorphic aspects of some Hindu gods. Seals resembling Pashupati in a yogic posture have also been discovered. Like Hindus today, Indus civilization people seemed to have placed a high value on bathing and personal cleanliness. The houses of Mohenjo-Daro usually had a private well and bathing platforms were often near the well (Kenoyer 1998: 58-60). Unlike other ancient civilizations, the archaeological record of the Indus civilization provides practically no evidence of armies, kings, slaves, social conflict, prisons, and other oft-negative traits that we traditionally associate with early civilization, although this could simply be due to the sheer completeness of its collapse and subsequent disappearance.

Bibliography

- Gupta, S.P. (ed.). 1995. The lost Sarasvati and the Indus Civilization. Kusumanjali Prakashan, Jodhpur.
- Kenoyer, J. Mark. 1998. Ancient cities of the Indus Valley Civilization. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195779401
-
- Jim G. Shaffer. 1992. "The Indus Valley, Baluchistan and Helmand Traditions: Neolithic Through Bronze Age." In Chronologies in Old World Archaeology. Second Edition. R.W. Ehrich, (Ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. I:441-464, II:425-446.
-
-

External links and references

- [http://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdf Paper published in 2004 by Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel questioning the traditional Indus-script thesis ]
- [http://pubweb.cc.u-tokai.ac.jp/indus/english/index.html An invitation to the Indus Civilization (Tokyo Metropolitan Museum)]
- [http://www.harappa.com/ Photos and descriptions of archaeological excavations — 90 page intro to Indus] (harappa.com)
- [http://www.archaeologyonline.net/artifacts/harappa-mohenjodaro.html The Harappan Civilization]
- [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/1272010.stm Prehistoric dentistry evidence found in Indus - BBC News]
- [http://www.hindunet.org/hindu_history/sarasvati/html/artefacts.htm Indus artefacts]
- [http://www.upenn.edu/researchatpenn/article.php?674&soc Cache of Seal Impressions Discovered in Western India ]
- [http://www.ucl.ac.uk/~ucgadkw/members/indus.html Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization]
- [http://lah.ru/fotoarh/megalit/asia/india.htm image collection] Category:Ancient peoples Category:Bronze Age Category:History of India Category:History of Pakistan Category:Civilizations ja:インダス文明

Major world religions

Major world religions have been distinguished from minor religions using a variety of methods, though any such division naturally reflects a particular bias, since many adherents of a religion are likely to consider their own faith "major". Two methods are mentioned in this article, number of adherents and the definitions used by classical scholars of religions. For a list of all religions, please see the article list of religions. For a discussion of the relationships between religions, see Religious pluralism

Defined by population

One way to define a major religion is by the number of current adherents. Population numbers by religion are computed by combination of census reports and population surveys (in countries where religion data is not collected in census, for example USA or France), but results can vary widely depending on the way questions are phrased, the definitions of religion used, and the bias of the agencies or organizations conducting the survey. Informal or unorganized religions are especially difficult to count.

All religions or belief systems by number of adherents

This listing does not draw distinctions between organized religion, which has a single belief code and religious hierarchies, and informal religions, such as Chinese traditional religions, which are a mix of different folk religious ideas. # Christianity 2.1 billion #
- Roman Catholicism: 1.1 billion #
- Protestantism: 350 million #
- Eastern Orthodoxy: 240 million #
- Anglican: 84 million #
- Oriental Orthodoxy, Assyrians, and other Christians: 350 million # Islam 1.3 billion #
- Sunnism: 940 million #
- Shi'ism 170 million # Secular/Irreligious/Agnostic/Atheist 1.1 billion # Hinduism 900 million # Chinese traditional religion 394 million #
- Not a single organized religion, includes elements of Taoism, Chinese folk religion, and traditional nonscriptural religious observance. # Buddhism 376 million (see also buddhism by country) #
- Mahayana: 185 million #
- Theravada: 124 million # Primal indigenous 300 million #
- Not a single organized religion, includes a wide range of primarily Asian traditional or tribal religions, including Shamanism and Paganism. # African traditional and diasporic 100 million #
- Not a single organized religion, this includes traditional African beliefs such as Yoruba as well as diasporic beliefs such as Santeria (which itself draws from Catholicism) and Vodoun. # Sikhism 23 million # Juche 19 million #
- Not considered a religion by adherents, who view it as secular and anti-revisionist. Juche is the political ideology of the Workers Party of Korea, the ruling party of the DPRK; some have argued it constitutes a religion due to its Great Leader Worship characteristics. The number is approximately the entire population of the country. # Spiritism 15 million #
- Not a single organized religion, includes a variety of beliefs including some forms of Umbanda. # Judaism 14 million # Bahá'í Faith 7 million # Jainism 4.2 million # Shinto 4 million # Cao Dai 4 million # Zoroastrianism 2.6 million # Tenrikyo 2 million # Neopaganism 1 million # Unitarian Universalism 800,000 # Rastafari movement 600,000 #
- Not a single organized religion.
- Source of statistics: [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html adherents.com], updated 2005. These statistics are based on analysis of a range of sources on religious populations, for more on the methodology, please see [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html#Specific Adherent.com's explanation].

Organized religions by population ranking

The Christian Science Monitor used a separate standard, examining only organized religions. The newspaper listed the following in 1998 as the "Top 10 Organized Religions in the World" based on descending level of population: #Christianity #Islam #Hinduism #Buddhism #Sikhism #Judaism #Bahá'í Faith #Confucianism #Jainism #Shintoism

Historic "classic" view

Major religions have also been identified based on their perceived importance, whether theological or temporal. This sorting has been generally been the preserve of Western, Christian scholars, so lists of classic major religions betray this bias. Early Christian scholars, the earliest known classifiers of major religions, recognized only three religions: Christianity, Judaism, and Paganism (which they considered to encompass every other religion). Views evolved during the enlightenment, however, and, by the 19th century, Western scholars considered the five major religions to be Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. As the exposure of Westerners to other religions increased, five other religions were added to the original five: Confucianism, Taoism, Jainism, Shinto and Zoroastrianism. Later, the Bahá'í Faith was added to this list, resulting in eleven classic religions:
- Bahá'í Faith
- Buddhism
- Christianity
- Confucianism
- Hinduism
- Islam
- Jainism
- Judaism
- Shinto
- Taoism
- Zoroastrianism Modern Western definitions of major religion come from the classical definition, often expanding on "Christianity," and omitting Jainism and Zoroastrianism. An example is this list found in the New York Public Library Student Reference:
- Bahá'í Faith
- Buddhism
- Confucianism
- Hinduism
- Islam
- Judaism
- Orthodox Eastern Church
- Protestantism
- Catholicism
- Shinto
- Taoism

References

- [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html A discussion on definitions of major religions]
- [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/ BBC Listing of Major Religions] See also: Religions of the world, Religious_pluralism. Category:Religious faiths, traditions, and movements ko:세계의 주요 종교 simple:Major world religions

Sikhism

Sikhism () is a religion based on the teachings of ten Gurus who lived primarily in 16th and 17th century India. It is one of the world's major religions with over 23 million followers. Sikhism comes from the word Sikh, which in turn comes from its Sanskrit root 'śiṣya' () which means "disciple" or "learner", or from the Pāli word 'sikkhā' (). The two core beliefs of Sikhism are:
- The belief in one God. The opening sentence of the Sikh scriptures is only two words long, and reflects the base belief of all who adhere to the teachings of the religion: - Ek Onkar
- The teachings of the Ten Sikh Gurus (as well as other accepted Muslim and Hindu figures) as enshrined in the Guru Granth Sahib. The Guru Granth Sahib is a sacred text considered by Sikhs to be their eleventh and final Guru. Sikhism was influenced by both reform movements in Hinduism (e.g. Sant Mat, Bhakti, monism, guru ideal, and bhajans) as well as Islam, particularly Sufism. It departs from some of the social traditions and structure of Hinduism and Islam (such as the caste system and purdah, respectively). Sikh philosophy is characterised by logic, comprehensiveness, and a "without frills" approach to both spiritual and material concerns. Its theology is marked by simplicity.

History of Sikhism

philosophy|right]]Guru Nanak Dev (1469-1538), considered to be the founder of Sikhism, was born in the village of Talwandi, now called Nankana Sahib, near Lahore in present-day Pakistan. His father, Mehta Kalu was a Patwari- an accountant of land revenue in the government. Guru's mother was Mata Tripta and he had one older sister, Bibi Nanki. From the very childhood, Bibi Nanki saw in him the Light of God but she did not reveal this secret to anyone. She is known as the first disciple of Guru Nanak. Even as a boy, Nanak was fascinated by religion, and his desire to explore the mysteries of life eventually led him to leave home. He wandered all over India in the manner of Hindu saints. It was during this period that Nanak was said to have met Kabir (1441–1518), a saint revered by both Hindus and Muslims. He made four distinct major journeys, which are called Udasis spanning many thousands of miles. In 1538, Guru Nanak chose Lehna, his disciple as a successor to the Guruship rather than his son. Bhai Lehna was named Guru Angad and became the second guru of the Sikhs. He continued the work started by the Founder. Guru Amar Das became the third Sikh guru in 1552 at the age of 73. Goindwal became an important centre for Sikhism during the Guruship of Guru Amar Das. He continued to preach the principle of equality for women, the prohibition of Sati and the practise of Langar. In 1567, Emperor Akbar sat with the ordinary and poor people of Punjab to have Langar. Guru Amar Das also trained 140 apostles of which 52 were women to manage the rapid expansion of the religion. Before he died in 1574 aged 95, he appointed his son-in-law, Jetha as the fourth Sikh Guru. Jetha became Guru Ram Das and vigorously undertook his duties as the new guru. He is responsible for the establishment of the city of Ramdaspur later to be named Amritsar. In 1581, Guru Arjan- youngest son of fourth guru - became the Fifth Guru of the Sikhs. In addition to being responsible for the construction of the Golden Temple, he prepared the Sikh Sacred text and his personal addition of some 2,000 plus hymns in the Guru Granth Sahib. In 1604 he installed the Adi Granth for the first time as the Holy Book of the Sikhs. In 1606, for refusing to make changes to the Guru Granth Sahib, he was tortured and killed by the Mughal rulers of the time. Guru Har Gobind, became the sixth guru of the Sikhs. He carried two swords – one for Spiritual reasons and one for temporal (worldly) reasons. From this point onward, the Sikhs became a military force and always had a trained fighting force to defend their independence. In 1644, Guru Har Rai became Guru followed by Guru Har Krishan, the boy Guru in 1661. Guru Teg Bahadur became Guru in 1665 and led the Sikhs until 1675, when he sacrificed his life to save the Kashmiri Hindus who had come to him for help. In 1675, Aurangzeb publicly executed the ninth Sikh Guru, Guru Tegh Bahadur. Sikh mythos says that Guru Tegh Bahadur sacrificed himself to protect Hindus, after Kashmiri pandits came to him for help when the Emperor condemned them to death for failing to convert to Islam. This marked a turning point for Sikhism. His successor, Guru Gobind Singh further militarised his followers (see Khalsa). After Aurangzeb killed four of Gobind Singh's sons, Gobind Singh sent Aurangzeb the Zafarnama (Notification of Victory). Shortly before passing away Guru Gobind ordered that Guru Granth Sahib, the Sikh Holy Scripture, would be the ultimate spiritual authority for the Sikhs and temporal authority would vest in the Khalsa Panth – The Sikh Nation. The first Sikh Holy Scripture was compiled and edited by the Fifth Guru, Guru Arjan in AD 1604, although some of the earlier gurus are also known to have documented their revelations. This is one of the few scriptures in the world that has been compiled by the founders of a faith during their own life time. The Guru Granth Sahib is particularly unique among sacred texts in that it is written in Gurmukhi script but contains many languages including Punjabi, Hindi-Urdu, Sanskrit, Bhojpuri and Persian. Sikhs consider the Guru Granth Sahib the last, perpetual living guru.

The Gurus of Sikhism

The Ten Gurus of Sikhism

Sikhism was established by ten Gurus — teachers or masters — over the period 1469 to 1708. Each master added to and reinforced the message taught by the previous, resulting to the creation of the religion of Sikhism. Guru Nanak was the first Guru and Guru Gobind Singh the final Guru in human form. When Guru Gobind Singh left this world, he made the Sri Guru Granth Sahib the ultimate and final Sikh Guru. The Gurus are believed to have the same spirit, or "jot", but different bodies.

The Sri Guru Granth Sahib

Guru Granth Sahib.]] The Guru Granth Sahib is the eleventh and final Guru of the Sikhs, is held in the highest regard by the Sikhs and is treated as the Eternal Guru, as instructed by Guru Gobind Singh. It is perhaps the only scripture of its kind which not only contains the teachings of its own religious founders but also writings of people from other faiths. Besides the Banis of the Gurus, it also contains the writings of saints like Kabir, Namdev, Ravidas, Sheikh Farid, Trilochan, Dhanna, Beni, Sheikh Bhikan, Jaidev, Surdas, Parmanad, Pipa and Ramanand. The Granth forms the central part of the Sikh place of worship called a gurdwara. The Holy Scripture placed on the dominant platform in the main hall of the gurdwara during the day. It is placed with great respect and dignity upon a throne with beautiful and colourful fabric. The Guru Granth Sahib is separated into musical measures, called Raags. There are 31 raags within the Guru Granth Sahib. Interpretations of the Guru Granth Sahib, although translated into English and many other languages, vary from person to person. Its interpretation is based on the mindset and perception of each individual, and its guiding advice can be used for any type of situation, both religious and non-religious.

Sikh religious philosophy

The Sikh religious philosophy can be divided into the following five sections:

Primary beliefs and principles

Sikhism advocates the belief in (Ek Onkar) who is omnipresent and has infinite qualities. This aspect has been repeated on numerous occasions in the Guru Granth Sahib. Sikhs do not have a gender for God nor do they believe God takes a human form. All human beings are considered equal regardless of their religion, sex or race. All are sons and daughters of Waheguru, the Almighty. Followers of Sikhism are encouraged to wake in the early morning hours, before the sun has risen, and meditate on God's name. They must work hard and honestly and never live off of others, but give to others from the fruits of one's own labour. A Sikh's home should always be open to all. Sikhs believe in the concept of reincarnation, yet other beliefs of the afterlife are also accepted. All creatures are believed to have souls that pass to other bodies upon death until liberation is achieved. Sikhs should defend, safeguard, and fight for the rights of all creatures, and in particular fellow human beings. They are encouraged to have a "Chardi Kala" or positive, optimistic and buoyant view of life. The Sikh religion is not considered the only way to salvation - people of other religions may also achieve salvation. This concept is shared with other Dharmic religions. Upon baptism, Sikhs must wear the 5Ks, and recite the 5 prayers. Sikhs do not believe that any particular day is holier than any other and tend to adopt the religious day of the country within which they reside. It is every Sikh's duty to defeat these five vices: ego, anger, greed, attachment, and lust. Sikhs are encouraged to 'attack' these vices with contentment, charity, kindness, positive attitude and humility.

Underlying values

The Sikhs must believe in the following values: #Equality: All humans are equal before God. #God's spirit: All creatures have God's spirits and must be properly respected. #Personal right: Every person has a right to life but this right is restricted. #Actions count: Salvation is obtained by one's actions, including good deeds, remembrance of God, etc. #Living a family life: Encouraged to live as a family unit to provide and nurture children. #Sharing: It is encouraged to share and give to charity 10 percent of one's net earnings. #Accept God's will: Develop your personality so that you recognize happy events and miserable events as one. #The four fruits of life: Truth, contentment, contemplation and Naam, (in the name of God).

Prohibited behavior

#Non-logical behavior: Superstitions and rituals are not meaningful to Sikhs (pilgrimages, fasting, bathing in rivers, circumcision, worship of graves, idols or pictures, compulsory wearing of the veil for women, etc.). #Material obsession: ("Maya") Accumulation of materials has no meaning in Sikhism. Wealth such as gold, portfolio, stocks, commodities, and properties will all be left here on Earth when you depart. Do not get attached to them. #Sacrifice of creatures: (Sati). Widows throwing themselves in the funeral pyre of their husbands, lamb and calf slaughter to celebrate holy occasions, etc. are forbidden. #Non-family oriented living: A Sikh is encouraged not to live as a recluse, beggar, yogi, monk, nun, or celibate. #Worthless talk: Bragging, gossip, lying, etc. are not permitted. #Intoxication: Alcohol, drugs, tobacco, and consumption of other intoxicants is not permitted. #Priestly class: Sikhs do not have to depend on a priest for performing any religious functions. They are not supposed to follow a class/caste system where the priestly class reigns highest. Everyone is equal.

Technique and methods

#Nām Japō: - meditation and prayer on the Name of God in Sikhism, which is "Waheguru", it is also called the 'Gur-Manter'. Naam Japna is the repetition of this name. #Kirat Karō: - Honest earnings, labor, etc. while remembering the Lord. #Vaṇḍ Chakkō: - Share with others in need, free food (langar), donate 10% of income Dasvand, etc.

Other observations

#Not son of God: The Gurus were not in the Christian sense “Sons of God”. Sikhism says all humans are the children of God and by deduction, God is mother/father. #All are welcome: Members of all religions may visit Sikh temples (Gurdwaras), but must observe certain rules: cover the head, remove shoes, no smoking or drinking intoxicants inside, and visitors must not be under the influence of any drugs, especially alcohol. #Multi-level approach: Sikhism recognises the concept of a multi-level approach to achieving one's target as a disciple of the faith. For example, "Sahajdhari" (slow adopters) are Sikhs who have not donned the full 5Ks but are still Sikhs nevertheless. Note: The Punjabi language does not have a gender for God. Unfortunately, when translating, the proper meaning cannot be correctly conveyed without using Him/His/He/Brotherhood, S/He etc., but this distorts the meaning by giving the impression that God is masculine, which is not the message in the original script. The reader must correct for this every time these words are used.

Observations

The founder of Sikhism, Guru Nanak, was born in 1469 to a Khatri family in central Punjab (in what is present day Pakistan). After four epic journeys (north to Tibet, south to Sri Lanka, east to Bengal and west to Mecca and Baghdad) Guru Nanak preached to Hindus, Muslims and others, and in the process attracted a following of Sikhs or disciples. Religion, he taught, was a way to unite people, but in practice he found that it set men against one another. He particularly regretted the antagonism between Hindus and Muslims as well as certain ritualistic practices that distracted people from focusing on God. He wanted to go beyond what was being practised by either religion and hence a well-known saying of Guru Nanak is, "There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim." Guru Gobind Singh reinforced these words by saying, "Regard the whole human race as equal". Guru Nanak was opposed to the caste system. His followers referred to him as the guru (teacher). Before his death he designated a new Guru to be his successor and to lead the Sikh community. This procedure was continued, and the tenth and last Guru, Guru Gobind (AD 1666–1708) initiated the Sikh ceremony in AD 1699 ; and thus gave a distinctive identity to the Sikhs. The five baptised Sikhs were named Panj Pyare (Five Beloved Ones), who in turn baptised the Guru at his request. Guru Nanak's doctrinal position is clear, despite the appearance that it is a blend of insights originating from two very different faiths. Sikhism's coherence is attributable to its single central concept – the sovereignty of the One God, the Creator. Guru Nanak called God the "True Name" because he wanted to avoid any limiting terms for God. He taught that the True Name, although manifest in many ways, many places and known by many names, is eternally One, the Sovereign and omnipotent God (the Truth of Love). Guru Nanak's ascribed to the concept of maya, regarding material objects and realities as expressions of the creator's eternal truth, which tended to erect "a wall of falsehood" around those who live totally in the mundane world of material desires. This materialism prevents them from seeing the ultimate reality, as God created matter as a veil, so that only spiritual minds, free of desire, can penetrate it by the grace of the Guru (Gurprasad). The world is immediately real in the sense that it is made manifest to the senses as maya, but is ultimately unreal in the sense that God alone is ultimate reality. Retaining the Hindu doctrine of the transmigration of souls, together with its corollary, the law of karma, Guru Nanak advised his followers to end the cycle of reincarnation by living a disciplined life – that is, by moderating egoism and sensuous delights, to live in a balanced worldly manner, and by accepting ultimate reality. Thus, by the grace of Guru (Gurprasad) the cycle of re-incarnation can be broken, and the Sikh can remain in the abode of the Love of God. A Sikh should balance work, worship and charity - and meditate by repeating God's name, Nam japna (to enhance spiritual development). Salvation, Guru Nanak said, does not mean entering paradise after a last judgment, but a union and absorption into God, the true name. Sikhs believe in neither heaven nor hell. They strive for the grace of the Guru during the human journey of the soul. Political pressure from surrounding Muslim nations forced the Sikhs to defend themselves and by the mid-nineteenth century, the Punjab area straddling modern-day India and Pakistan, Afghanistan and Kashmir was ruled by them. The Sikh's Khalsa Army defeated the invading British army and signed treaties with China.

All welcomed

Members of all religions may visit Sikh temples (gurdwaras = the Guru's door) but are asked to observe the following rules out of respect for sikh sensibilities:
- To cover one's head (there will be bandana-like Rumāls available there)
- To take off one's shoes
- To not smoke or indulge in the consumption of alcoholic or tobacco-related materials (even in the vicinity of the gurdwara)
- Not to bring or possess any alcoholic or tobacco-related items, or be under their effects when entering the gurdwara.

Followers of Sikhism

Rumāl A Sikh is a follower of Sikhism. The word Sikh is derived from its Sanskrit root 'śiṣya' () which means "disciple" or "learner", or from the Pāli word 'sikkhā' (). In the Punjabi language the word Sikh also means humble follower. So a Sikh is a disciple of the Ten Gurus and a follower of the teachings in Sikhism's holy scriptures who they regard as a living guru, the Guru Granth Sahib. Most Sikhs are of Punjabi background and live in the state of Punjab, India, but the Sikh community stretches over 100 nations and on all continents of the world. Today, Sikhs can be found all over India and elsewhere in the world. Sikh men as well as some Sikh women can be identified by their practice of always wearing a turban to cover their long hair. The turban is quite distinct and is not the same as those worn by others in the region. However, not all Sikhs in the modern era continue to wear turbans or grow long hair. Sikhism recognises the concept of a multi-level approach to achieving your target as a disciple of the faith. For example, Sahajdhari (slow adopters) are Sikhs who have not donned the full Five Ks but are still Sikhs nonetheless. The surname or more usually the middle name Singh¹ (meaning lion) is very common for males, and Kaur (meaning princess) for women. Of course, not all people named Singh or Kaur are necessarily Sikhs. The name Singh is closely linked to the martial antiquities of North India dating back to at least the Eighth Century CE. Sikh forenames tend to be unisex.

The Five Ks

Practicing Sikhs are bound to wear five Kakaars, or articles of faith, known as The Five Ks, at all times. It is done either out of respect for the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, or out of sense of duty or from understanding of their function and purpose and relevance in daily life. It is important to note that The Five Ks are not merely present for symbolic purposes. The tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, ordered these Five Ks to be worn so that a Sikh could actively use them to make a difference to their own spirituality and to others' spirituality. The 5 items are: Kesh (uncut hair), Kanga (small comb), Kara (circular bracelet), Kirpan (small sword) and Kacha (long underwear).

Sikhs around the world

A Sikh known as Yogi Bhajan brought the Sikh way of life to many young people in the Western hemisphere. In addition to Indian-born Sikhs, there are now thousands of individuals of Western origin who were not born as Sikhs, but have embraced the Sikh way of life and live and teach all over the world. In the late 1970s and 1980s a limited political separatist movement arose in India with the mission to create a separate Sikh state, called Khalistan, in the Punjab area of India and Pakistan. Currently, there are about 23 million Sikhs in the world, making it the fifth largest religion in the world. Approximately 19 million Sikhs live in India with the majority living in the state of Punjab ('greater Punjab' extends across the India-Pakistan border but few Sikhs remained in Pakistan after partition in 1947). Large populations of Sikhs can be found in the United Kingdom, Canada, and United States. They also comprise a significant minority in Malaysia and Singapore. Practices in Sikh communities around the world are standard with regard to behaviour in a gurdwara, or the manner of conducting certain ceremonies, but personal lifestyle often varies.

Sikhs and Punjabis

Since Sikhism originated in the Punjab region, most Sikhs trace their roots to that region (though in recent times, with the spread both of Sikhism and Sikhs, one might encounter Sikhs belonging to other geographical locations across the world). With the revisions of the state boundaries in 1966, 65% of the population in the Indian Punjab made up of Sikhs, whereas Sikhs comprise only 2% of the population in India as a whole. Consequently, and also because the Guru Granth Sahib is written in Gurmukhi, a script of the Punjabi language, most Sikhs are able to speak, read or write the language, or are at least familiar with it.

The Khalsa

A baptised Sikh becomes a member of the Khalsa or the "Pure Ones". When a Sikh joins the Khalsa, he/she is supposed to have devoted their life to the Guru, and is expected not to desist from sacrificing anything and everything in a struggle for a just and righteous cause. The word "Khalsa" has two literal meanings. It comes from Persian. One literal meaning is "Pure" and the other meaning is "belonging to the king". When the word "Khalsa" is used for a Sikh, it implies belonging to the King, where the King is God himself. To become a Khalsa, a Sikh must surrender themselves completely to the supreme King or God and obey God's will without question or delay.

British Raj

The British Raj (also simply known as the Raj) was a historical period during which the Indian subcontinent, or present-day India, Pakistan and Bangladesh were under the colonial authority of the British; also included from 1886 was Burma. It lasted from 1858, when the rule of the British East India Company was transferred to the Crown, until 1947, when British India was partitioned into two fully independent states, India and Pakistan. Although Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) is on the Indian subcontinent, it is not counted part of the Raj, as it was ruled as a Crown Colony from London rather than by the Viceroy of India as a part of the Indian Empire. On the other hand, Burma, though not part of the subcontinent, was administered along with the Raj until the 1930s.

History

Burma The British first established a foothold in the Indian subcontinent when British soldiers led by Robert Clive and funded by the British East India Company defeated the Bengali Nawab Siraj Ud Daulah at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. Bengal's riches were expropriated, the East India Company monopolized Bengali trade and Bengal became a British protectorate directly under its rule. Bengali farmers and craftsmen were obliged to render their labor for minimal remuneration while their collective tax burden increased greatly. As a consequence, the famine of 1769 to 1773 cost the lives of 10 million Bengalis. A similar catastrophe occurred almost a century later, after Britain had extended its rule across the Indian subcontinent, when 40 million Indians perished from famine amidst the collapse of India's native industries.

The Indian Mutiny

Main article: Indian rebellion of 1857 On May 10, 1857, soldiers of the British Indian Army (known as "sepoys," from Urdu/Persian sipaahi or sepaahi), drawn from the native Hindu and Muslim population, mutinied in Meerut, a cantonment eighty kilometres northeast of Delhi. The rebels marched to Delhi to offer their services to the Mughal emperor, and soon much of north and central India was plunged into a year-long insurrection against the British. Many native regiments and Indian kingdoms joined the revolt, whilst other Indian units and Indian kingdoms backed the British commanders and officers of the Empire.
Causes of the Rebellion
The uprising, which seriously threatened British rule in India, was undoubtedly the culmination of mounting Indian resentment toward British social and political policies over many decades. Until the rebellion, the British had succeeded in suppressing numerous riots and "tribal" wars or in accommodating them through concessions, but two factors – one a trend and the other a single event – triggered the violent explosion of wrath in 1857. The trend that was the policy of annexation pursued by Governor-General Lord Dalhousie, based mainly on his "Doctrine of Lapse", which held that princely states would be merged into company-ruled territory in case a ruler died without direct heir. This denied the native rulers the right to adopt an heir in such an event; adoption had been pervasive practise in the Hindu states hitherto, sanctioned both by religion and by secular tradition. The states annexed under this doctrine included such major kingdoms as Satara, Thanjavur, Sambhal, Jhansi, Jetpur, Udaipur, and Baghat. Additionally, the company had annexed, without pretext, the rich kingdoms of Sind in 1843 and Oudh in 1856, the latter a wealthy princely state that generated huge revenue and represented a vestige of Mughal authority. This greed for land, especially in a bunch of small-town and middle-class British tradesmen, whose parvenu background was increasingly evident and galling to Indians of rank, had alienated a large section of the landed and ruling aristocracy, who were quick to take up the cause of evicting the tradesmen once the revolt was kindled. The spark that lit the fire was the result of a very convincing, though untrue, rumour about a British blunder in using new cartridges for the Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle that were greased with animal fat, rumoured to now be a combination of pig-fat and cow-fat. This was offensive to the religious beliefs of both Muslim and Hindu sepoys respectively, who refused to use the cartridges and, under provocation, finally mutinied against their British officers.
Course of the Rebellion
The rebellion soon engulfed much of North India, including Oudh and various areas that had lately passed from the control of Maratha princes to the company. The unprepared British were terrified, without replacements for the casualties. The rebellion inflicted havoc on Indians and the community suffered humiliation and triumph in battle as well, although the final outcome was victory for the British. Isolated mutinies also occurred at military posts in the centre of the subcontinent. The last major sepoy rebels surrendered on June 21, 1858, at Gwalior (Madhya Pradesh), one of the principal centres of the revolt. A final battle was fought at Sirwa Pass on May 21, 1859, and the defeated rebels fled into Nepal. Although the rebellious sepoys fought with great bravery, the British were victorious due to superior leadership and organization, as well as the fact that the majority of the sepoys remained loyal to the British. The Sikh sepoys were the most reliable of all the native troops, partly because they had no affinity with the Hindus and Muslims and were somewhat suspicious of the mutineers. Another reason was that they had a long tradition of miliary service, such that they felt bound to follow the orders of those they had pledged their service to. Most areas ruled by native princes remained largely untouched by the rebellion; in particular, Rajasthan and the maratha states of central India, with the exception of Gwalior, remained calm. Punjab was another major area loyal to the British throughout the rebellion, and the main source of supplies and fighting men for them. Significantly, the rebellion also did not spread to other parts of the subcontinent, most notably the south, which was a bastion of British power. There has been much subsequent debate about the correct labelling of this event in the history of the Raj. Although it has gone down in the imperial annals as "the Indian Mutiny" or the Sepoy Rebellion, many modern-day Indians, and others besides, feel that this is an inappropriate term for what they see as the first serious independence movement in India. The spontaneous and widespread rebellion later fired the imagination of the nationalists who would debate the most effective method of protest against British rule. For them, the rebellion represented the first Indian attempt at gaining independence.
Post-rebellion developments
The rebellion was a major turning point in the history of modern India. In May 1858, the British exiled Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II (r. 1837-1857) to Burma, after executing most of his family , thus formally liquidating the Mughal Empire. The remaing rebels were hunted down, they and their families tortured and humiliated, to teach the rest of India not to rebel again. Cultural and religious centers were closed down, properties and estates were confiscated. At the same time, they abolished the British East India Company and replaced it with direct rule under the British Crown. In proclaiming the new direct-rule policy to "the Princes, Chiefs, and Peoples of India," Queen Victoria (who was given the title Empress of India in 1877) promised equal treatment under British law, but Indian mistrust of British rule had become a legacy of the 1857 rebellion. Many existing economic and revenue policies remained virtually unchanged in the post-1857 period, but several administrative modifications were introduced, beginning with the creation in London of a cabinet post, the Secretary of State for India. The governor-general (called viceroy when acting as representative to the nominally sovereign "princely states" or "native states"), headquartered in Calcutta, ran the administration in India, assisted by executive and legislative councils. Beneath the governor-general were the provincial governors, who held power over the district officials, who formed the lower rungs of the Indian Civil Service. For decades the Indian Civil Service was the exclusive preserve of the British-born, as were the superior ranks in such other professions as law and medicine. The British administrators were imbued with a sense of duty in ruling India and were rewarded with good salaries, high status, and opportunities for promotion. Not until the 1910s did the British reluctantly permit a few Indians into their cadre as the number of English-educated Indians rose steadily. The Viceroy of India announced in 1858 that the government would honour former treaties with princely states and renounced the "doctrine of lapse," whereby the East India Company had annexed territories of rulers who died without male heirs. About 40 percent of Indian territory and 20-25 percent of the population remained under the control of 562 princes notable for their religious (Islamic, Hindu, Sikh and other) and ethnic diversity. Their propensity for pomp and ceremony became proverbial, while their domains, varying in size and wealth, lagged behind sociopolitical transformations that took place elsewhere in British-controlled India. A more thorough reorganization was effected in the constitution of army and government finances. Shocked by the extent of solidarity among Indian soldiers during the rebellion, the government separated the army into the three presidencies. British attitudes toward Indians shifted from relative openness to insularity and xenophobia, even against those with comparable background and achievement as well as loyalty. British families and their servants lived in cantonments at a distance from Indian settlements. Private clubs where the British gathered for social interaction became symbols of exclusivity and snobbery that refused to disappear decades after the British had left India. In 1883 the government of India attempted to remove race barriers in criminal jurisdictions by introducing a bill empowering Indian judges to adjudicate offences committed by Europeans. Public protests and editorials in the British press, however, forced the viceroy George Robinson, First Marquess of Ripon, (who served from 1880 to 1884), to capitulate and modify the bill drastically. The Bengali Hindu intelligentsia learned a valuable political lesson from this "white mutiny": the effectiveness of well-orchestrated agitation through demonstrations in the streets and publicity in the media when seeking redress for real and imagined grievances. Post-1857 India also experienced a period of unprecedented calamity when the region was swept by a series of frequent and devastating famines, among the most catastrophic on record. Approximately 25 major famines spread through states such as Tamil Nadu in South India, Bihar in the north, and Bengal in the east in the latter half of the 19th century, killing between 30-40 million Indians. The famines were a product both of uneven rainfall and British economic and administrative policies, which since 1857 had led to the seizure and conversion of local farmland to foreign-owned plantations, restrictions on internal trade, heavy taxation of Indian citizens to support unsuccessful British expeditions in Afghanistan (see Second Anglo-Afghan War), inflationary measures that increased the price of food, and substantial exports of staple crops from India to the United Kingdom. Some British citizens such as William Digby agitated for policy reforms and famine relief, but Lord Lytton, son of the poet Edward Bulwer-Lytton and the governing British viceroy in India, opposed such changes in the belief that they would stimulate shirking by Indian workers. Native industries in India were also decimated in the aftermath of the 1857 rebellion, particularly during the three decades from 1870 to 1900. The famines continued until independence in 1948, with the Bengal Famine of 1943-44 -- among the most devastating -- killing 3-4 million Indians during World War II.
Beginnings of self-government
The first steps were taken toward self-government in British India in the late 19th century with the appointment of Indian counsellors to advise the British viceroy and the establishment of provincial councils with Indian members; the British subsequently widened participation in legislative councils with the Indian Councils Act of 1892. The Government of India Act of 1909 -- also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms (John Morley was the secretary of state for India, and Gilbert Elliot, fourth earl of Minto, was viceroy) -- gave Indians limited roles in the central and provincial legislatures, known as legislative councils. Indians had previously been appointed to legislative councils, but after the reforms some were elected to them. At the centre, the majority of council members continued to be government-appointed officials, and the viceroy was in no way responsible to the legislature. At the provincial level, the elected members, together with unofficial appointees, outnumbered the appointed officials, but responsibility of the governor to the legislature was not contemplated. Morley made it clear in introducing the legislation to the British Parliament that parliamentary self-government was not the goal of the British government. The Morley-Minto Reforms were a milestone. Step by step, the elective principle was introduced for membership in Indian legislative councils. The "electorate" was limited, however, to a small group of upper-class Indians. These elected members increasingly became an "opposition" to the "official government." Communal electorates were later extended to other communities and made a political factor of the Indian tendency toward group identification through religion. The practice created certain vital questions for all concerned. The intentions of the British were questioned. How humanitarian was their concern for the minorities? Were separate electorates a manifestation of "divide and rule"? For Muslims it was important both to gain a place in all-India politics and to retain their Muslim identity, objectives that required varying responses according to circumstances, as the example of Muhammed Ali Jinnah illustrates. Jinnah, who was born in 1876, studied law in England and began his career as an enthusiastic liberal in Congress on returning to India. In 1913 he joined the Muslim League, which had been shocked by the 1911 annulment of the partition of Bengal into cooperating with Congress to make demands on the British. Jinnah continued his membership in Congress until 1919. During this dual membership period, he was described by a leading Congress spokesperson as the "ambassador of Hindu-Muslim unity."
After World War I
India's important contributions to the efforts of the British Empire in World War I stimulated further demands by Indians and further response from the British. The Congress Party and the Muslim League met in joint session in December 1916. Under the leadership of Jinnah and Pandit Motilal Nehru (father of Jawalharlal Nehru), unity was preached and a proposal for constitutional reform was made that included the concept of separate electorates. The resulting [http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A032&Pg=2 Congress-Muslim League Pact] (often referred to as the Lucknow Pact) was a sincere effort to compromise. Congress accepted the separate electorates demanded by the Muslim League, and the Muslim League joined with Congress in demanding self-government. The pact was expected to lead to permanent and constitutional united action. In August 1917, the British government formally announced a policy of "increasing association of Indians in every branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire." Constitutional reforms were embodied in the Government of India Act of 1919, also known as the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (Edwin Samuel Montagu was the United Kingdom's Secretary of State for India; the Viscount Chelmsford was viceroy). These reforms represented the maximum concessions the British were prepared to make at that time. The franchise was extended, and increased authority was given to central and provincial legislative councils, but the viceroy remained responsible only to London. The changes at the provincial level were significant, as the provincial legislative councils contained a considerable majority of elected members. In a system called "dyarchy," based on an approach developed by Lionel Curtis the nation-building departments of government -- agriculture, education, public works, and the like -- were placed under ministers who were individually responsible to the legislature. The departments that made up the "steel frame" of British rule -- finance, revenue, and home affairs -- were retained by executive councillors who were often (but not always) British, and who were responsible to the governor. The 1919 reforms did not satisfy political demands in India. The British repressed opposition, and restrictions on the press and on movement were reenacted. An apparently unwitting example of violation of rules against the gathering of people led to the massacre at Jalianwala Bagh in Amritsar in April 1919. This tragedy galvanized such political leaders as Jawaharlal Nehru (1889-1964) and Mohandas Karamchandas Gandhi (1869-1948) and the masses who followed them to press for further action. The Allies' post-World War I peace settlement with Turkey provided an additional stimulus to the grievances of the Muslims, who feared that one goal of the Allies was to end the caliphate of the Ottoman sultan. After the end of the Mughal Empire, the Ottoman caliph had become the symbol of Islamic authority and unity to Indian Sunni Muslims. A pan-Islamic movement, known as the Khilafat Movement, spread in India. It was a mass repudiation of Muslim loyalty to British rule and thus legitimated Muslim participation in the Indian nationalist movement. The leaders of the Khilafat Movement used Islamic symbols to unite the diverse but assertive Muslim community on an all-India basis and bargain with both Congress leaders and the British for recognition of minority rights and political concessions. Muslim leaders from the Deoband and Aligarh movements joined Gandhi in mobilizing the masses for the 1920 and 1921 demonstrations of civil disobedience and non-cooperation in response to the massacre at Amritsar. At the same time, Gandhi endorsed the Khilafat Movement, thereby placing many Hindus behind what had been solely a Muslim demand. Despite impressive achievements, however, the Khilafat Movement failed. Turkey rejected the caliphate and became a secular state. Furthermore, the religious, mass-based aspects of the movement alienated such Western-oriented constitutional politicians as Jinnah, who resigned from Congress. Other Muslims also were uncomfortable with Gandhi's leadership. The British historian Sir Percival Spear wrote that "a mass appeal in his Gandhi's hands could not be other than a Hindu one. He could transcend caste but not community. The Hindu devices he used went sour in the mouths of Muslims". In the final analysis, the movement failed to lay a lasting foundation of Indian unity and served only to aggravate Hindu-Muslim differences among masses that were being politicized. Indeed, as India moved closer to the self-government implied in the Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, rivalry over what might be called the spoils of independence sharpened the differences between the communities.
Further reform
The political picture in India was not at all clear when the mandated decennial review of the Government of India Act of 1919 became due in 1929. Prospects of further constitutional reforms spurred greater agitation and a frenzy of demands from different groups (See Nehru Report) . The Simon Commission headed by Sir John Simon, who recommended further constitutional change, but it was not until 1935 that a new Government of India Act was passed. The Indian Round Table Conferences 1931-1933 were held in London, at which a wide variety of interests from India were represented. The major disagreement concerned the continuation of separate electorates, which Gandhi and Congress strongly opposed. As a result, the decision was forced on the British government. Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald issued his "communal award," which continued the system of separate electorates at both the central and the provincial level. The principal result of the act was provincial autonomy. The dyarchical system was discontinued, and all subjects were placed under ministers who were individually and collectively responsible to the former legislative councils, which were renamed legislative assemblies. (In a few provinces, including Bengal, a bicameral system was established; the upper house continued to be called a legislative council.) Almost all assembly members were elected, with the exception of some special and otherwise unrepresented groups. After the elections, provincial chief ministers and cabinets took office, although the governors had limited emergency powers. Sindh was separated from Bombay and became a province. The 1919 reforms had earlier been introduced in the North-West Frontier Province. Balochistan, however, retained special status; it had no legislature and was governed by an "agent general to the governor general." At the centre, the act essentially provided for the establishment of dyarchy, but it also provided for a federal system that included the princes. The princes refused to join a system that might force them to accept decisions made by elected politicians. Thus, the full provisions of the 1935 act did not come into force at the centre.
World War II and the End of the Raj
At the start of World War II an agreement was reached between the British government and the Indian independence movement whereby India would be granted independence once victory was gained over the Axis Powers, in exchange for India’s full co-operation in the war. Millions of Indians joined the military; it was the largest all-volunteer army in the history of the world. At midnight on August 14, 1947 Pakistan (then also including modern Bangladesh) was granted independence. India was granted independence the following day. Most people would give these dates as the end of the British Raj. However, some people argue that it continued until 1950 in India and 1956 in Pakistan, when those countries adopted republican constitutions (India a secular one and Pakistan later becoming a state with defined role of Islam) and the British monarch ceased to be their head of state.
Provinces
At the time of independence, British India consisted of the following provinces:
- Ajmer-Merwara-Kekri
- Andaman and Nicobar Islands
- Assam
- Baluchistan
- Bengal
- Bihar
- Bombay Province - Bombay
- Central Provinces and Berar
- Coorg
- Delhi Province - Delhi
- Madras Province - Madras
- North-West Frontier Province
- Panth-Piploda
- Orissa
- Punjab
- Sindh
- United Provinces (Agra and Oudh) Eleven provinces (Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Bombay, Central Provinces, Madras, North-West Frontier, Orissa, Punjab, and Sind) were headed by a governor. The remaining six (Ajmer Merwara, Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Baluchistan, Coorg, Delhi, and Panth-Piploda) were governed by a chief commissioner. There were also several hundred Princely States, under British protection but ruled by native rulers. Among the most notable of these were Jaipur, Hyderabad, Mysore, and Jammu and Kashmir.
See also

- British Empire
- Imperialism in Asia
- Secretary of State for India
- India Office
- Governor-General of India
- Indian Civil Service
- Government of India Act
- Partition of India
- History of Bangladesh
- History of India
- History of Pakistan
- Anglo-Indian cuisine
References

- - [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/intoc.html India], [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/pktoc.html Pakistan]
- [http://www.houseofdavid.ca/Ind_uni.htm#Bibliography Bibliography] Category:British rule in India Category:Former monarchies

Economy of India

The economy of India is the fourth-largest in the world as measured by purchasing power parity (PPP), with a GDP of US $3.36 trillion. When measured in USD exchange-rate terms, it is the tenth largest in the world, with a GDP of US $691.87 billion (2004). India was the second fastest growing major economy in the world, with a GDP growth rate of 8.1% at the end of the first quarter of 2005–2006. However, India's huge population results in a relatively low per capita income of $3,100 at PPP. The country's economy is diverse and encompasses agriculture, handicrafts, industries and a multitude of services. Services are the major source of economic growth in India today, though two-thirds of the Indian workforce earn their livelihood directly or indirectly through agriculture. In recent times, India has also capitalised on its large number of highly educated people who are fluent in the English language to become a major exporter of software services, financial services and software engineers. India has adhered to a socialist-inspired approach for most of its independent history, with strict government control over private sector participation, foreign trade, and foreign direct investment. Since the early 1990s, India has gradually opened up its markets through economic reforms by reducing government controls on foreign trade and investment. Privatisation of public-owned industries and opening up of certain sectors to private and foreign players has proceeded slowly amid political debate. The socio-economic problems India faces are a burgeoning population and lack of infrastructure, as well as growing inequality and unemployment. Poverty also remains a problem although it has seen a decrease of 10% since the 1980s.

History

India's economic history can be broadly compartmentalised into three eras, beginning with the pre-colonial period lasting up to the 17th century. The advent of British colonisation of the Indian subcontinent started the colonial period in the 17th century, which ended with the Indian independence in 1947. The third period is the post-independence period after 1947.

Pre-colonial

The citizens of the Indus Valley civilisation, a permanent and predominantly urban settlement that flourished between 2800 BC and 1800 BC practised agriculture, domesticated animals, used uniform weights and measures, made tools and weapons, and traded with other cities. Evidence of well planned streets, a drainage system and water supply reveals their knowledge of urban planning, which included the world's first urban sanitation systems, and the existence of some form of municipal government. Much of the population of the region constituting present-day India resided in villages, whose economies were largely isolated and self-sustaining, with agriculture being the predominant occupation of the populace. It satisfied the food requirements of the village and also provided raw materials for hand-based industries like textile, food processing and crafts. Although many kingdoms and rulers issued coins, barter was still widely prevalent. Villages paid a portion of their agricultural produce as revenue, while its craftsmen received a part of the crops at harvest time for their services. barter (414–55 AD)]] Religion, especially Hinduism, the caste and the joint family systems, played an influential role in shaping economic activities. The caste system, despite its social drawbacks, functioned much like medieval European guilds, ensuring the division of labour, providing for the training of apprentices and in some cases led certain manufacturers to practise super specialisation. For instance, in certain regions, each variety of cloth produced was the speciality of a particular sub-caste. Superstitions about foreign travel among Hindus meant that a large part of India's foreign trade was carried out by foreigners and Muslims. Indian textiles like muslin, Calicos, shawls, agricultural products like pepper, cinnamon, opium and indigo were exported to Europe, Middle East and South East Asia in return for gold and silver. The assessment of India's pre-colonial economy is mostly qualitative in nature, owing to the lack of sufficient quantitative information. One estimate puts the revenue of Akbar's Mughal Empire in 1600 at £17.5 million, in contrast to the entire treasury of Great Britain in 1800, which totalled £16 million. India, by the time of the arrival of the British, was a traditional agrarian economy with a dominant subsistence sector dependent on primitive technology. It existed alongside a competitively developed network of commerce, manufacturing and credit. After the fall of the Mughals and the rise of Maratha imperialism, the Indian economy was plunged into a state of political instability due to internecine wars and conflicts.

Colonial

Maratha imperialism The colonial rule brought along an institutional environment that guaranteed property rights, ensured free trade, had fixed exchange rates, uniform currency system, uniform weights and measures, open capital markets, created a well developed system of railways and telegraphs, a bureaucracy free from political interferences and a modern legal system. It also coincided with major changes in the world economy - industrialisation, growth in trade and production, and new thinking on economic policies followed by states. By the end of the colonial rule, however, India inherited an economy, which was one of the poorest in the world and stagnant, with industrial development stalled, agriculture unable to feed a rapidly accelerating population, who were subject to frequent famines, had one of the world's lowest life expectancy, suffered from pervasive malnutrition and was largely illiterate. An estimate by Cambridge historian Angus Maddison reveals that, India's share of the world income, reduced from 22.6% in 1700, comparable to Europe's share of 23.3 %, to a low of 3.8% in 1952. While Indian leaders during the Independence struggle and left-nationalist economic historians have blamed the colonial rule for the dismal state of India's economy, a broader macroeconomic view of India during this period reveals that there were segments of both growth and decline, resulting from changes brought about by colonialism and a world that was moving towards industrialisation and economic integration.

Post-independence

economic integration Indian economic policy after independence, influenced by the colonial experience (which was seen by Indian leaders as exploitative in nature), and by their exposure to Fabian socialism, became protectionist in nature, implementing a policy of import substitution, industrialisation, state intervention in labour and financial markets, a large public sector, overt regulation of business, and central planning. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India, along with the statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, formulated and oversaw the economic policy of independent India. They expected favourable outcomes from this strategy since it involved both the public and private sectors and was based on direct and indirect state intervention instead of a Soviet-style central command system. The policy of concentrating simultaneously on capital and technology intensive heavy industry and subsidising hand based and low-skilled cottage industries was criticised by economist Milton Friedman, who thought it would not only waste both capital and labour, but also retard the development of smaller manufacturers. Milton Friedman as a percentage of US. ]] India's low average growth rate upto 1980 was derisively referred to as the Hindu rate of growth, because of the contrasting high growth rates in other Asian countries, especially the East Asian Tigers. The economic reforms that surged economic growth in India after 1980 can be attributed to two stages of reforms. The pro-business reform of 1980 initiated by Indira Gandhi and carried on by Rajiv Gandhi, eased restrictions on capacity expansion for incumbents, removed price controls and reduced corporate taxes. The economic liberalisation of 1991, initiated by then Indian prime minister P. V. Narasimha Rao and his finance minister Manmohan Singh in response to a macroeconomic crisis did away with the Licence Raj (investment, industrial and import licensing) and ended public sector monopoly in many sectors, thereby allowing automatic approval of foreign direct investment in many sectors. Since then, the overall direction of liberalisation has remained the same, irrespective of the ruling party at the centre, although no party has yet tried to take on powerful lobbies like the trade unions and farmers, or contentious issues like labour reforms and cutting down agricultural subsidies.

Government intervention

State planning

trade unions After independence, India opted to have a centrally planned economy to ensure an effective and equitable allocation of national resources for the purpose of balanced economic development. After liberalisation, the emergence of a market economy with a fast growing private sector, planning has become indicative, rather than prescriptive in nature. The process of formulation and direction of the Five-Year Plans is carried out by the Planning Commission, headed by the Prime Minister of India as its chairperson.

Mixed economy

India is a mixed economy combining features of both capitalist market economies and socialist command economies. Thus, there is a regulated private sector (the regulations have decreased since liberalisation) and a public sector controlled almost entirely by the government. The public sector generally covers areas which are deemed too important or not profitable enough to leave to the instability of capitalistic markets. Thus such services as railways and postal system are carried out by the government. Since independence, various phases have seen nationalisation of such areas as banking, thus bringing them into the public sector, on one hand, and privatisation of some of the Public Sector Undertakings during the liberalisation period on the other.

Public expenditure

Public Sector Undertaking, in Mumbai.]] India's public expenditure is classified as development expenditure, comprising of central plan expenditure and central assistance and non-development expenditures, comprising of capital expenditure and revenue expenditure. Central plan expenditure is money spent on development schemes outlined in the plans of the central government and public sector undertakings, while central assistance refers to financial assistance and developmental loans given for plans of the state governments and union territories. Non-development capital expenditure comprises of capital defence expenditure, loans to public enterprises, states and union territories and foreign governments, while non-development revenue expenditure comprises revenue defence expenditure, administrative expenditure, subsidies, debt relief to farmers, postal deficit, pensions, social and economic services (education, health, agriculture, science and technology), grants to states and union territories and foreign governments. India's non-development revenue expenditure have increased nearly five-fold in 2003-04 since 1990-91 and more than ten-fold since 1985-1986. Interest payments are the single largest item of expenditure and accounted for more than 40% of the total non development expenditure in the 2003-04 budget. Defence expenditure increased four-fold during the same period and has been increasing due to growing tensions in the region, the expensive dispute with Pakistan over Jammu and Kashmir and an effort to modernise the military. Administrative expenses are compounded by a large salary and pension bill, which rises periodically due to revisions in wages, dearness allowance etc. subsidies on food, fertilisers, education and petroleum and other merit and non-merit subsidies account are not only continuously rising, especially because of rising crude oil and food prices, but are also harder to rein in, because of political compulsions.

Public receipts

petroleum India has a three-tier tax structure, wherein the constitution empowers the union government to levy Income tax, tax on capital transactions (wealth tax, inheritance tax, gift tax), sales tax, service tax, customs and excise duties and the state governments to levy sales tax on intra-state sale of goods, tax on entertainment and professions, excise duties on manufacture of alcohol, stamp duties on transfer of property and collect land revenue (levy on land owned). The local governments are empowered by the state government to levy property tax, Octroi and charge users for public utilities like water supply, sewage etc. More than half of the revenues of the union and state governments come from taxes, of which half come from Indirect taxes. More than a quarter of the union government's tax revenues is shared with the state governments. The tax reforms, initiated in 1991, have sought to rationalise the tax structure and increase compliance by taking steps in the following directions:
- Reducing the rates of individual and corporate income taxes, excises, customs and making it more progressive
- Reducing exemptions and concessions
- Simplification of laws and procedures
- Introduction of Permanent account number to track monetary transactions
- Despite protests from traders, 21 of the 29 states introduced Value added tax (VAT) on April 1, 2005 to replace the complex and multiple sales tax system The non-tax revenues of the central government come from fiscal services, interest receipts, public sector dividends, etc., while the non-tax revenues of the States are grants from the central government, interest receipts, dividends and income from general, economic and social services.

General budget

fiscal.]] The Finance minister of India presents the annual union budget in the Parliament on the last working day of February. The budget has to be passed by the House before it can come into effect on April 1, the start of India's fiscal year. The Union budget is preceded by an economic survey, which is released on the eve of the budget and outlines the broad direction of the budget and the economic performance of the country for the outgoing financial year. India's union budget for 2005-06, had an estimated outlay of Rs.5,14,344 crores ($118 billion). Earnings from taxes amount to Rs. 2,73,466 crore ($63b). India's fiscal deficit amounts to 4.5% or 1,39,231 crore ($32b).

Currency System

Rupee

fiscal deficit The Rupee is the only legal tender accepted in the India and is also accepted as legal tender in neighbouring Nepal and Bhutan, the latter's currency value being pegged to the rupee. The rupee is divided into 100 paise. The highest currency note printed is the 1000 rupee note, and the lowest denomination in circulation is the 10 p coin. For higher numeric figures, India uses its own numbering system of counting in lakhs and crores. A lakh is equal to a hundred thousand, and a crore equal to ten million. The October 2005 exchange rate of about 43.5 to a US dollar, makes a crore (rupees crore) approximately equal to US$230,000.

Exchange rates

October 2005.]] Under the fixed exchange rate system, the value of the rupee was linked to the British pound sterling till 1946 and after independence, 30% of India's foreign trade was to be determined in pound sterling. In 1975, as per the Floating exchange rate system, the value of the rupee was pegged to a basket of currencies and was tightly controlled by the Reserve Bank of India. In recent years its value has depreciated with respect to most currencies with the exception of the US dollar. Since liberalisation, the rupee is fully convertible on trade and current account. The former has enabled Indian businessmen and workers to convert their earnings abroad into rupee at market rates, while the latter has removed all restrictions on foreign exchange for current business transactions as well as travel, education, medical expenses, etc., India has committed to gradually move towards full convertibility, albeit with some restrictions on capital accounts, in order to encourage two-way flow of capital and investment.

Determinants

Demographics

foreign exchange India, with a population of 1.027 billion people, is the second most populous country in the world, accounting for nearly 17% of the world's population. Growth rate of population has shown signs of decrease, coming down from a compound annual growth rate of 2.15 (1951–1981) to 1.93 (1991–2001); despite the decrease in the death rates owing to improvements in healthcare. The large population puts further pressure on infrastructure, social services like education and has magnified socio-economic problems like unemployment, illiteracy, etc. A positive factor has been the large working age population, which forms 58.2% of the total population, which is expected to substantially increase, because of the decrease in dependency ratio. Increased literacy, better healthcare and self-sufficiency in food production since independence, have ensured that a large population has not caused any serious problems.

Geography and natural resources

India's geography ranges from mountain ranges to deserts, plains, hills and plateaus, while its climate varies from tropical in the south to a more temperate climate in the north. India's total cultivable area is 1,269,219 km² (56.78% of total land area), which is decreasing due to constant pressure from an ever growing population and increased urbanisation. km² India has a total water surface area of 314,400 km² and receives an average annual rainfall of 1,100 mm. Irrigation accounts for 92% of the water utilisation, and comprised 380 km² in 1974, and is expected to rise to 1,050 km² by 2025, with the balance accounted for by industrial and domestic consumers. India's inland water resources comprising rivers, canals, ponds and lakes and marine resources comprising the east and west coasts of the Indian ocean and other gulfs and bays provide employment to nearly 6 million people in the fisheries sector. India is the sixth largest producer of fish in the world and second largest in inland fish production. India's major mineral resources include Coal (fourth-largest reserves in the world), Iron ore, Manganese, Mica, Bauxite, Titanium ore, Chromite, Natural gas, Diamonds, Petroleum, Limestone and Thorium (world's largest along Kerala's shores). India's oil reserves, found in Bombay High off the coast of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and in eastern Assam meet 25% of the country's demand.

Physical infrastructure

Assam, operational since 2002 and seen as a model for other metros.]] Since independence, India has allocated nearly half of the total outlay of the five-year plans for infrastructural development. Much of the total outlay was spent on large projects in the area of irrigation, energy, transport, communications and social overheads. Development of infrastructure was completely in the hands of the public sector and was plagued by corruption, inefficiencies, urban-bias and an inability to scale investment. India's low spending on power, construction, transportation, telecommunications and real estate, at $31 billion or 6% of GDP, compared to China's spending of $260 billion or 20% of its GDP in 2002 has prevented India from sustaining a growth rate of around 8%. This has prompted the government from opening up infrastructure to the private sector and allowing foreign investment.

Politics

India, a federal republic, has had stable democratic governments since independence. Politics is dominated by the centre-left Indian National Congress (INC), the right-wing Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), the left-wing Communist Party of India (CPI) and CPI (Marxist) and various regional parties, which are either centre-right or centre-left. Despite the varied political spectrums they occupy, the necessity of forming coalitions for government formation, the growing middle class that generally favours liberalisation and tightening fiscal deficits, especially at the state levels, has meant that all political parties adopt a moderate view towards economic reforms.

Financial institutions

fiscal deficits is used to gauge the strength of the Indian economy.]] At the time of Independence, India inherited several institutions like the civil services, central bank, railways, etc., from her British rulers. Mumbai serves as the nation's commercial capital, with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI), Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE) and the National Stock Exchange (NSE) located here. The headquarters of many financial institutions are also located within the city. The RBI, the country's central bank was established on 1935-04-01. It serves as the nation's monetary authority, regulator and supervisor of the financial system, manager of exchange control and as an issuer of currency. The RBI is governed by a central board, headed by a governor who is appointed by the Central government of India. The BSE Sensex or the BSE Sensitive Index is a value-weighted index composed of 30 companies with April 1979 as the base year (100). These companies have the largest and most actively traded stocks and are representative of various sectors, on the Exchange. They account for around one-fifth of the market capitalisation of the BSE. The Sensex is generally regarded as the most popular and precise barometer of the Indian stock markets. Incorporated in 1992, the National Stock Exchange is one of the largest and most advanced stock markets in India. The NSE is the world's third largest stock exchange in terms of transactions. There are a total of 23 stock exchanges in India, but the BSE and NSE comprise 83% of the volumes. The Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI), established in 1992, regulates the stock markets and other securities markets of the country.

Sectors

Agriculture

Agriculture and allied sectors like forestry, logging and fishing accounted for 25% of the GDP, employed 57% of the total workforce in 1999-2000 and despite a steady decline of its share in the GDP, is still the largest economic sector and plays a significant role in the overall socio-economic development of India. Yields per unit area of all crops have grown since 1950, due to the special emphasis placed on agriculture in the five-year plans and steady improvements in irrigation, technology, application of modern agricultural practices and provision of agricultural credit and subsidies since the green revolution. However, international comparisons reveal that the average yield in India is generally 30% to 50% of the highest average yield in the world. green revolution The low productivity in India is a result of the following factors:
- Illiteracy, general socio-economic backwardness, slow progress in implementing land reforms and inadequate or inefficient finance and marketing services for farm produce.
- The average size of land holdings is very small (less than 20,000 m²) and are subject to fragmentation, due to land ceiling acts and in some cases, family disputes. Such small holdings are often over-manned, resulting in disguised unemployment and low productivity of labour.
- Adoption of modern agricultural practices and use of technology is inadequate, hampered by ignorance of such practices, high costs and impracticality in the case of small land holdings.
- Irrigation facilities are inadequate, as revealed by the fact that only 53.6% of the land was irrigated in 2000-01 , which result in farmers still being dependent on rainfall, specifically the Monsoon season. A good monsoon results in a robust growth for the economy as a whole, while a poor monsoon leads to a sluggish growth.

Industry

Concerted efforts at industrialisation by the government, aiming at self-sufficiency in production and protection from foreign competition, for nearly four decades since independence, have encouraged a broad industrial base, both in the public and private sectors. They together account for 28.4% of the GDP and employ 17% of the total workforce. Economic reforms bought foreign competition, led to privatisation of certain public sector firms, opened up sectors hitherto reserved for the public sector and the small scale sector and led to an expansion in the production of durable consumer goods. Post-liberalisation, the Indian private sector, which was usually run by old family firms and required political connections to prosper was faced with foreign competition and the threat of cheap Chinese imports. It has, since handled the change by squeezing costs, revamping management, focusing on designing new products and relying on low labour costs and technology.

Services

consumer goods in Chennai, one of the largest software parks in India.]] The service sector, providing employment to 23% of the work force, is the fastest growing sector, with a growth rate of 7.5% in 1991-2000 up from 4.5% in 1951-80. It has the largest share in the GDP, accounting for 48% in 2000 up from 15% in 1950. Business services (including information technology (IT) and IT enabled services), communication services, financial services, hotels and restaurants, community services and trade (distribution) services are among the fastest growing sectors contributing to one third of the total output of services in 2000. The growth in the service sector is attributed to increased specialisation, availability of a large population of highly-educated and fluent English-speaking workers on the supply side and on the demand side, increased demand from domestic consumers resulting from growth in personal incomes and from foreign consumers interested in India's service exports or those looking to outsource their operations. India's IT industry, despite contributing significantly to its balance of payments, accounted for only about 1% of the total GDP or 1/50th of the total services.

Banking and finance

balance of payments The Indian money market is classified into: the organised sector (comprising private, public and foreign owned commercial banks and cooperative banks, together known as scheduled banks); and the unorganised sector (comprising individual or family owned indigenous bankers or money lenders and non-banking financial companies (NBFCs)). The unorganised sector and microcredit are still preferred over traditional banks in rural and sub-urban areas, especially for non-productive purposes, like ceremonies and short duration loans. Indira Gandhi nationalised 14 banks in 1969, followed by seven others in 1980 and made it mandatory for banks to provide 40% (since reduced to 10%) of their net credit to priority sectors like agriculture, small-scale industry, retail trade, small businesses, etc. to ensure that the banks fulfil their social and developmental goals. Since then, the number of bank branches have increased from 10,120 in 1969 to 98,910 in 2003 and the population covered by a branch decreased from 63,800 to 15,000 during the same period. The total deposits increased 32.6 times between 1971 to 1991 compared to 7 times between 1951 to 1971. Despite an increase of rural branches, from 1,860 or 22% of the total number of branches in 1969 to 32,270 or 48%, only 32,270 out of 5 lakh (500,000) villages are covered by a scheduled bank. Since liberalisation, the government has approved significant banking reforms. While some of these relate to nationalised banks (like encouraging mergers, reducing government interference and increasing profitability and competitiveness), other reforms have opened up the banking and insurance sectors to private and foreign players.

Socio-economic characteristics

Poverty

lakh The National sample survey organisation (NSSO) estimated that 26.1% of the population was living below the poverty line in 1999–2000, down from 51.3% in 1977–1978. The criterion used was monthly consumption of goods below Rs. 211.30 for rural areas and Rs. 454.11 for urban areas. 75% of the poor are in rural areas (27.1% of the total rural population) with most of them comprising daily wagers, self-employed households and landless labourers. The major causes for poverty are unemployment or under-employment, low ownership of assets (especially productive assets like land and farm equipment) and illiteracy. Since the early 1950s, successive governments have implemented various schemes, under planning, to alleviate poverty, that have met with partial success. All those programs have improved upon the strategies of the Food for work programme and National Rural Employment Programme of the 1980s, which attempted to use the unemployed to generate productive assets and build rural infrastructure. In August 2005, the Indian parliament passed the Rural Employment Guarantee Bill, the largest programme of this type, in terms of cost and coverage, which promises 100 days of minimum wage employment to every rural household in 200 of India's 600-odd districts. The question of whether economic reforms has reduced or increased poverty has fuelled debates without generating any clear cut answers and has also put political pressure on further economic reforms, especially those involving downsizing of labour and cutting down agricultural subsidies.

Corruption

India's 600-odd districts India. (Darker regions are more corrupt) ]] Corruption has been one of the pervasive problems affecting India, along with many developing countries, which has taken the form of bribes, evasion of tax and exchange controls, embezzlement, etc. The economic reforms of 1991 reduced the red tape, bureaucracy and the Licence Raj that had strangled private enterprise and was blamed for the corruption and inefficiencies. Yet, a 2005 study by Transparency International (TI) India found that more than half of those surveyed had firsthand experience of paying bribe or peddling influence to get a job done in a public office. The chief economic consequences of corruption are the loss to the exchequer, an unhealthy climate for investment and an increase in the cost of government-subsidised services. The TI India study estimates the monetary value of petty corruption in 11 basic services provided by the government, like education, healthcare, judiciary, police, etc., to be around Rs.21,068 crores. India still ranks in the bottom quartile of developing nations in terms of the ease of doing business, and compared to China, the average time taken to secure the clearances for a startup or to invoke bankruptcy is much greater. The Right to Information Act (2005) and equivalent acts in the states, that require government officials to furnish information requested by citizens or face punitive action, computerisation of services and various central and state government acts that established vigilance commissions have considerably reduced corruption or at least have opened up avenues to redress grievances.

Occupations and unemployment

Right to Information Act Agricultural and allied sectors accounted for about 57% of the total workforce in 1999-2000, down from 60% in 1993-94. While agriculture has faced stagnation in growth, services have seen a steady growth. Of the total workforce, 8% is in the organised sector, two-thirds of which are in the public sector. The NSSO survey estimated that in 1999-2000, 106 million, nearly 10% of the population were unemployed and the overall unemployment rate was 7.32%, with rural areas doing marginally better (7.21%) than urban areas (7.65%). Unemployment in India, like most other developing countries, is characterised by chronic underemployment or disguised unemployment. Government schemes that target eradication of both poverty and unemployment, attempt to solve the problem, by providing financial assistance for setting up businesses, skill honing, setting up public sector enterprises, reservations in governments, etc. The decreased role of the public sector after liberalisation has further undermined the need for focusing on better education and has also put political pressure on further reforms.

Regional imbalance

disguised unemployment One of the critical problems facing India's economy is the sharp and growing regional variations among India's different states and territories in terms of per capita income, poverty, availability of infrastructure and socio-economic development. For instance, the difference in growth rate between the forward and backward states was 0.3% (5.2% & 4.9%) during 1980-81 to 1990-91, but had grown to 3.3% (6.3% & 3.0%) during 1990-91 to 1997-98. The five-year plans have attempted to reduce regional disparities by sanctioning industrial development in the interior regions, but industries still tend to concentrate around urban areas and port cities. Even the industrial townships in the interiors, Bhilai for instance, resulted in very little development in the surrounding areas. After liberalisation, the disparities have grown despite the efforts of the union government in reducing them. Part of the reason being, manufacturing and services and not agriculture are the engines of growth, in which the forward states are better placed, with infrastructure like well developed ports, urbanisation and an educated and skilled workforce which attract manufacturing and service sectors. The union and state governments of backward regions are trying to reduce the disparities by offering tax holidays, cheap land, etc., and focusing more on sectors like tourism, which although being geographically and historically determined, can become a source of growth and is faster to develop than other sectors.

External trade and investment

Global trade relations

Until the liberalisation of 1991, India was largely and intentionally isolated from the world markets in order to protect its fledging economy and achieve self-reliance. Foreign trade was subject to import tariffs, export taxes and quantitative restrictions, while foreign direct investment was restricted by upper limit equity participation, requirements on technology transfer, export obligations and government approvals, which were needed for nearly 60% of new FDI in the industrial sector. These restrictions ensured that FDI averaged only around $200 million annually between 1985-1991 and a large percentage of the capital flows consisted of foreign aid, commercial borrowing and deposits of non-resident Indians. India's exports were stagnant for the first 15 years, due to the predominance of tea, jute and cotton manufactures, whose demand were generally inelastic. Imports in the same period consisted predominantly of machinery, equipment and raw materials due to the nascent industrialisation. Post-liberalisation, the value of India's international trade has become more broad based and gone up to Rs. 63,080,109 crores in 2003-04 from Rs.1,250 crores in 1950-51. India's major trading partners are China, United States, UAE, UK, Japan and the European Union. India is a founder-member of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) since 1947 and its successor, the World Trade Organization since its inception. While participating actively in its general council meetings, India has been crucial in voicing the concerns of the developing world. For instance, India has continued its opposition to the inclusion of such matters as labour and environment issues and other non-tariff barriers into the WTO policies.

Balance of payments

non-tariff barriers Since independence, India's balance of payments on current account has been negative for most of the years, owing to a larger share of imports vis-à-vis exports. Since liberalisation, incidentally precipitated by a balance of payment crisis, India's exports have been consistently rising, covering 80.3% of India's imports in 2002-03, up from 66.2% in 1990-91. Although India is still a net importer, since 1996-1997, India's overall balance of payments (current account balance + capital account balance) has been positive, largely on account of increased foreign direct investment and deposits from non-resident Indians, which until then, was occasionally positive on account of external assistance and commercial borrowings. As a result, India's foreign currency reserves stood 141 billion USD as on 2005-2006. India's reliance on external assistance and commercial borrowings has decreased since 1991-1992 and since 2002-2003, it has been repaying them. Declining interest rates and reduced borrowings have decreased India's debt service ratio to 14.1% in 2001-02 from 35.3% in 1990-91.

Notes

The 1872 census puts the non-urban population at 91.3%. Data for Bangladesh is not available for 1950. Totals are rounded off. Private sector data relates to non-agriculture establishments employing ten or more persons. Coverage in construction, especially in the private sector is known to be inadequate. Public expenditure was classified as plan and non-plan expenditure in the 1987-1988 union budget. It is now referred to as development and non-development expenditure, but the definition remains the same. Development expenditure is a capital expenditure. Service tax and expenditure tax are not levied in Jammu and Kashmir; Intra-state sale happens when goods or the title of goods move from one state to another. Tax revenue was 88% of total union government revenue in 1950-51 and has come down to 73% in 2003-04, as a result of increase in non-tax revenue. Tax revenues were 70% of total state government revenues in 2002 to 2003. Indirect taxes were 84% of the union governments total tax revenue and have come down to 62% in 2003-04, mostly due to cuts in import duties and rationalisation. The states share in union government's tax revenue is 28.0% for the period 2000 to 2005 as per the recommendations of the eleventh finance commission. In addition, states that do not levy sales tax on sugar, textiles and tobacco, are entitled to 1.5 % of the proceeds. Old private banks are private banks existing prior to opening up of the banking sector. [http://www.mit.gov.in/rti.asp Example] of a central government department's implementation of the Right to Information Act. Much of India's FDI is routed through Mauritius, because both countries have an agreement to avoid double taxation.

External links

- [http://dpe.nic.in/ Department of Public Enterprises]
- [http://finmin.nic.in/ Finance Ministry of India]
- [http://www.indiainbusiness.nic.in/ Indian business]
- [http://finance.indiamart.com/taxation Taxation]
- [http://www.oxusresearch.com/economic.asp OxusResearch Research publications] – poverty in India.
- [http://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/Statistics.aspx RBI's database on the Indian economy]

References

;Books
-
-
-
-
-
- ;Papers
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- ;Government publications
-
-
-
-
-
- ;News
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- ;Articles
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
- simple:Economy of India

Military of India

The Military of India consists of the Indian Army, Navy (including naval air arm), Air Force, the Border Security Force, Assam Rifles, Rashtriya Rifles, National Security Guards, Indo-Tibetan Border Police, Special Frontier Force, Central Reserve Police Force, National Cadet Corps, Defense Security Corps, and the Strategic Forces Command. India maintains the second largest armed forces in the world. The Supreme Commander of the Indian Armed Forces is the President of India, currently Dr. A.P.J Abdul Kalam. The Military of India is the third-most numerous military in the world, after the People's Republic of China and United States of America. Over a million strong, the Indian Paramilitary Forces form the largest paramilitary force in the world. Since its formation, the military has fought in both World Wars. Post-independence, it has fought three wars against Pakistan and a war with China. India also fought an extended border skirmish with Pakistan in 1999. The Indian military possesses nuclear weapons and sufficient means — a range of missiles and aircraft — to deliver these over considerably long distances. However, India has a nuclear no-first-use policy and maintains a nuclear doctrine based on credible minimum deterrence. India is not a part of the nuclear non-proliferation treaty, citing concerns that it unfairly favours the established nuclear powers, and provides no provision for complete nuclear disarmament. Indian officials argued that India's refusal to sign the treaty stemmed from its fundamentally discriminatory character; the treaty places restrictions on the nonnuclear weapons states but does little to curb the modernization and expansion of the nuclear arsenals of the nuclear weapons states. The Indian armed forces are a volunteer only service; the military draft has never been imposed in India.

Military branches of India

- Indian Army
- Indian Air Force
- Indian Navy
- Indian Coast Guard
- Paramilitary Forces (includes BSF and NSG)
- Strategic Nuclear Command The highest wartime gallantry Award given by the Military of India is the Param Vir Chakra. Its peacetime equivalent is the Ashoka Chakra. The highest decoration for meritorious service is the Param Vishisht Seva Medal.

References

- [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html CIA World Factbook 2005: India]
- Militarism in India: The Army and Civil Society in Consensus- by A. Kundu

External links

- [http://www.india-defence.com/ India Defence]- Defence, Military & Strategic Affairs Portal
- [http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/ BharatRakshak.com]- Informative site on the Indian Military
- [http://www.armedforces.nic.in/ Indian Armed Forces] - Indian military's official website India Category:Military of India Military

Geopolitics

Geopolitics analyses politics, history and social science with reference to geography. The term was coined by Rudolf Kjellén, a Swedish political geographer, at the end of the 19th century. Kjellén was inspired by the German geographer Friedrich Ratzel, who published his book "Politische Geographie" (political geography) in 1897. The term was popularized in English by US diplomat Robert Strausz-Hupé, a faculty member of the University of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania The discipline gained attention largely through the work of Sir Halford Mackinder in England and his formulation of the Heartland Theory in 1904. This theory involved concepts diametrically opposed to the notion of Alfred Thayer Mahan about the significance of navies (he coined the term sea power) in world conflict. The Heartland theory, on the other hand, hypothesized the possibility for a huge empire to be brought into existence which didn't need to use coastal or transoceanic transport to supply its military industrial complex, and that this empire could not be defeated by all the rest of the world coalitioned against it. The basic notions of Mackinder's theory involve considering the geography of the Earth as being divided into a variation on the notion of the Old World (most of the Eastern Hemisphere) and the New World (the Western Hemisphere and what was called Oceania). The difference was that the archipelagoes which were traditionally able to defend themselves by naval power — historically, Britain and prospectively, Japan — were taken from the former, which was renamed the World Island. They were added to the other part of the world, renamed the Periphery, along with Philippines, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and Madagascar. Australia and New Zealand were already part of the New World. Not only was the Periphery noticeably smaller than the World Island, it necessarily required much sea transport to function at the technological level of the World Island, which contained sufficient natural resources for a developed economy. Also, the industrial centers of the Periphery were necessarily located in widely-separated locations. The World Island could send its navy to destroy each one of them in turn. It could locate its own industries in a region further inland than the Periphery could, so they would have a longer struggle reaching them, and would be facing a well-stocked industrial bastion. This region Mackinder termed the Heartland. It was essentially comprised of Ukraine, Western Russia, and Mitteleuropa. The Heartland contained the grain reserves of Ukraine, and many other natural resources. Mackinder's notion of geopolitics can be summed up in his saying "Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland. Who rules the Heartland commands the World-Island. Who rules the World-Island commands the world." Though the theory was first imagined before World War I, developments in that war did not disprove it. Vast systems of trenches were not envisaged as part of the antagonism, but their appearance, as well as the demonstration that submarines could destroy convoys, made geopolitics appear even more frightening. The development of mechanized military transport needing petroleum fit right into the theory, for Russia's major oil reserves are located on the western shore of the Caspian Sea. Also, it was imagined before the industrial development of Russia herself. Thus it was as much a "thought experiment" as Schlieffen's plan to conquer France. Some influential Germans, both before and during the Third Reich, found this theory compatible with their desire to control Mitteleuropa and to take Ukraine. The intention to take the latter was indicated by the slogan Drang nach Osten, or "drive to the east". Although the fascists took much of Ukraine in World War II, nonetheless they were defeated. Another point which Mackinder missed was that the Soviets could actually move their factories out of the Heartland. For a time it seemed as though the theory was defunct, at first because conventional air force had been falsely touted as capable of destroying industries thousands of miles from the seacoast, and shortly afterward with the appearance of nuclear weapons. But with the coming of the Cold War, Mackinder's theory regained a bit of plausibility when instead of war, influence upon other nations was considered. This would be projection of power in other terms. The Soviet Union accomplished the domination of both Ukraine and Mitteleuropa. It was industrial, technically competent, and militarily able. Some anti-communists in the West who had heard of Mackinder gained additional fear of them from of his theory. What reduced the plausibility of this form of geopolitics drastically was the rise of Japan, a country without natural resources, yet which could surpass the Soviet Union without dealing with anything military at all. The Balance of terror, which enforced a state of relative peace during that period, also extends beyond the predictions of the original theory. Since then, the word geopolitics has been applied to other theories, most notably the notion of the clash of civilizations. In a peaceable world, neither sea lanes nor surface transport are threatened; hence all countries are effectively close enough from one another physically. It is in the realm of the political ideas and workings that there are differences, and the term has shifted to this arena. After World War I, Kjellen's thoughts and the term were picked up and extended by a number of scientists: in Germany by Karl Haushofer, Erich Obst, Hermann Lautensach and Otto Maull; in England, Mackinder and Fairgrieve; in France Vidal de la Blache and Vallaux. In 1923 Karl Haushofer founded the "Zeitschrift für Geopolitik" (magazine for geopolitics), which developed as a propaganda organ for Nazi-Germany.

In the abstract, geopolitics traditionally indicates the links and causal relationships between political power and geographic space; in concrete terms it is often seen as a body of thought assaying specific strategic prescriptions based on the relative importance of land power and sea power in world history. . . . The geopolitical tradition had some consistent concerns, like the geopolitical correlates of power in world politics, the identification of international core areas, and the relationships between naval and terrestrial capabilities.—Oyvind Osterud, The Uses and Abuses of Geopolitics, Journal of Peace Research, no. 2, 1988, p. 191

Old Persian

] Old Persian is the oldest attested Persid language. It is classified in the group of Western Iranian languages, subgroup of Indo-Iranian and Indo-European languages. This language was used in the inscriptions of the Achaemenid kings. Old Persian texts (including inscriptions, tablets and seals) have been found in Iran, Turkey and Egypt. It evolved into the Middle Persian language (Pahlavi) of Sassanid Iran, and eventually into modern Persian language.

Script

Old Persian was written from left to right in a kind of Cuneiform script. Old Persian cuneiform contains 36 signs which represent consonants, vowels, or sequences of single consonants plus vowels, a set of three numbers (1, 10, 100), one word divider, and eight ideograms. It is essentially alphabetic in nature. While the letters may look like Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform, only one, L, derives from that script. (L didn't occur in native Old Persian words, but was found in Akkadian borrowings.) Scholars today mostly agree that the Old Persian script was invented by about 525 BC to provide monumental inscriptions for the Achaemenid king Darius I. Although based on a logo-syllabic prototype, the system is essentially alphabetic in character. 13 out of 22 consonants are invariant, regardless of the following vowel (that is, they are alphabetic), while only 6 have a distinct form for each consonant-vowel combination (that is, they are syllablic), and among these, only d and m occur in three forms for all three vowels. (k, g, j, v only occur before two of the vowels, and so only have two forms.) In addition, 3 consonants, t, n, r, are partially syllabic, having the same form before a and i, and a distinct form only before u. For instance, =< could be na or ni, whereas <<= is specifically nu. Ambiguous syllables such as =< na/ni must be followed by a vowel for clarification, but in practice even unambiguous syllables such as <<= nu, or fully syllabic ma, mi, mu, are followed by explicit vowels. The effect is not unlike the English sound, which is typically written g before i or e, but j before other vowels (gem, jam), or the Castillian Spanish sound, which is written c before i or e and z before other vowels (cinco, zapato). It is more accurate to say that some of the Old Persian consonants are written by different letters depending on the following vowel, rather than classifying the script as syllabic. This situation had its origin in the Assyrian cuneiform syllabary, where several syllabic distinctions had been lost and were often clarified with explicit vowels. However, in the case of Assyrian, the vowel was not always used, and was never used where not needed, so the system remained (logo-)syllabic. For a while it was speculated that the alphabet could have had its origin in such a system, with a leveling of consonant signs a millennium earlier producing something like the Ugaritic alphabet, but today it is generally accepted that the Semitic alphabet arose from Egyptian hieroglyphs, where vowel notation was not important. (See Middle Bronze Age alphabets.)

Further information

- [http://www.cais-soas.com/articles/language&litreature_articles.htm Ancient Iranian Languages & Literature: The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS)]

References

- [http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Languages/aryan/aryan_language.htm Aryan (Old Persian) Language]

External link

- [http://www.cais-soas.com/CAIS/Languages/iranian_languages.htm Iranian Languages Group] Category:Iranian languages Category:Persian language Persian language, Old

Hufeisensiedlung

Die Hufeisensiedlung (Siedlung Britz) entstand von 1925 bis 1933 im Süden Berlin-Neuköllns nach Plänen von Bruno Taut und Martin Wagner. Sie ist eines der ersten Projekte des sozialen Wohnungsbaues.

Gesellschaftlicher Hintergrund

Nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg stieg der Zuzug nach Berlin aufgrund der allgemeinen Arbeitslosigkeit stark an. Sehr viele Wohnungen waren stark überbelegt, obwohl beispielsweise eine Einzimmerwohnung mit Küche erst bei fünf Bewohnern als überbelegt galt. Anfang der 1920er Jahre gab es einen Fehlbestand von mehr als 100.000 Wohnungen in der Stadt, den die damals praktisch ausschließlich private Bautätigkeit nicht decken konnte. Von 1921 bis 1928 entstanden deshalb zahlreiche Baugenossenschaften, die auf nicht-kommerzieller Grundlage und mit sozialreformerischen Ansätzen versuchten, die drängende Wohnungsnot zu beseitigen. Es sollte dabei günstiger und qualitativ hochwertiger Wohnraum geschaffen werden, der zudem eine gute Verkehrserschließung aufweisen sollte. Das war nur durch großflächigen Siedlungsbau möglich. Die Hufeisensiedlung ist ein erstes Beispiel für sozialen Wohnbau und war eine enorme Herausforderung für Architekten und Stadtplaner. Aufgrund der 1925 novellierten Bauordnung für Groß-Berlin entstanden in den Folgejahren 17 Großsiedlungen, die zwar eine hohe Wohndichte, aber auch die geforderten besseren Wohnbedingungen aufwiesen.

Die Hufeisensiedlung

Groß-Berlin Auf dem Gebiet des ehemaligen Rittergutes Britz im Süden des Berliner Bezirks Neukölln sollte eine Siedlung mit mehr als 1.000 Wohnungen entstehen. Bruno Taut war als verantwortlicher Architekt und Stadtplaner der gemeinnützigen Wohnungsbaugesellschaft GEHAG für die Planung der neuen Siedlung verantwortlich, zusammen mit Stadtbaurat Martin Wagner entwickelte er das stadtplanerische Konzept der Hufeisensiedlung. Beide Anhänger des neuen Bauens wollten sie industrielle Arbeitsmethoden im großen Stil auf das Bauwesen übertragen. Typisierte Wohnungen und Gebäude und Großproduktion sollten dessen Vorteile herausstellen. Martin Wagner nutzte den Bau der Siedlung als Möglichkeit für Studien über wirtschaftliches Bauen. Taut brachte bei der Planung seine Erfahrungen mit der Gartenstadt Falkenberg ein, trotz hoher Dichte und Betonung des Stadtraumes werden den Grün- und Freibereichen ein hoher Stellenwert eingeräumt. Das Hauptgebäude umschließt einen Pfuhl, eine Grundwassersenke und die Zeilenbebauung bildet mehrere hofartige Bereiche, sodass Ähnlichkeiten mit einem Angerdorf bestehen. Da die Zeilenbebauung an das Gelände angepasst ist und auf die Großform des Hufeisens reagiert, wirkt die Siedlung sehr lebendig. Gelände In sieben Bauabschnitten entstanden im Stil des Neuen Bauens von 1925 bis 1933 1.072 Wohnungen. Es gibt nur vier verschiedene Grundrißtypen. 472 der Wohnungen liegen in aneinandergereihten Einfamilienhäusern, 600 liegen in den dreigeschossigen Mietshäusern. Mit Ausnahme des zentralen Hufeisens sind alle Bauten zu Zeilen aufgereiht, jedem Haus ist ein eigener Mietergarten zugeordnet. Die funktionale und damit eigentlich sehr schlichte Architektur gestaltete Taut mit wenigen einfachen, aber effektiven Mitteln. Sprossenfenster, Klinkerverblendungen an den Gebäudeecken, der spannungsreiche Unterschied zwischen Glatt- und Rahputzflächen gehören dazu; identitätsstiftend ist aber vor allem die Farbgebung. Taut ließ den Außenraum der Siedlung durch den Einsatz von gegliederten und farbigen Fassaden bewusst gestalten. Die lange Front der Fritz-Reuter-Allee war in Berliner Rot (ochsenblutfarben) gestrichen. und wird deshalb im Volksmund Rote Front genannt. Unterbrochen und gegliedert wurde die Fassade durch hervorspringende Treppenhäuser. Die Eingänge des Hufeisens wurden durch kräftiges Blau betont. Die Farbgestaltung rief zur damaligen Zeit viel Kritik hervor, ist inzwischen aber ein liebgewonnenes Markenzeichen der Siedlung im sonst recht uniformen Massenwohnungsbau. Die Hufeisensiedlung war richtungsweisend für die Siedlungsarchitektur der 20er und 30er Jahre. und ist auch heute noch trotz der relativ kleinen Wohnungsgrößen von 49 m² bei ihren Bewohnern äußerst beliebt. Bis 2000 war die Siedlung vollständig im Besitz der GEHAG, seitdem versucht die Genossenschaft, die Wohnungen zu veräußern. Ein Teil der Bewohner hat eine eigene Genossenschaft gegründet, mit dem Ziel die Hufeisensiedlung von der GEHAG zu übernehmen. In den 90er Jahren wurde die Siedlung saniert und unter Denkmalschutz gestellt. Inzwischen gibt es Bemühungen, um eine Aufnahme der Hufeisensiedlung auf die UNESCO-Liste des Weltkulturerbe.

Literatur

- Norbert Huse (Hrsg.): Vier Berliner Siedlungen der Weimarer Republik, Argon-Verlag, Berlin, 1987, ISBN 3-87024-109-8

Weblink

- http://www.hufeisensiedlung.de/.
- http://www.neubritz.de/archiv/geschichte/hufeisensiedlung.htm. Kategorie:Ort in Berlin Kategorie:Stadtbaugeschichte

appartamenti bruxelles narty Granada accommodation sprzet Varsavia appartamenti

:: RELATED NEWS ::

Reagan Democrats
The term Reagan Democrat is used by political commentators to describe traditionally Democratic voters, especially white working-class ones, who defected their party to support Ronald Reagan, either in the 1980 election, or, more commonly, the 1984 one. The classic study of Reagan Democrats is probably National Hockey League that leads the league in plus/minus. The award is sponsored by commercial businesses. It has had numerous sponsors over the years and is currently known as the Bud Light Plus-Minus Award.

NHL Plus-Minus Award Winners

- 2006 -
- 2005 - no winner due to cancellation

Career

Her career began on short-lived soap A Flame in the Wind in 1964. She then moved to Alan Keyes I think this is a good article with lots of precise information. Good choice for a featured article.
- Your reason for nomination please User:Lst27? I'm already inclined to oppose simply on the grounds that you're unable to follow directions. Alkivar 02:09, 20 Dec 2004 (UTC)
- Let's try to have a little civility, please. →Raul654 02:17, Dec 20, 2004 (U

Read More...